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Why women live longer than men

It turns out the real survival champions of history weren’t the sword-wielding warriors or the swashbuckling adventurers – they were women. Yes, even during famines, plagues and periods of mass human awfulness (see: enslavement and measles), women have been quietly outliving men like it’s just another Tuesday. That’s the conclusion of researchers who dove deep into history’s most miserable moments, including the Irish Potato Famine, enslavement in Trinidad and Icelandic measles outbreaks, only to find that female bodies just won’t quit. According to a study led by demographer Virginia Zarulli, even newborn girls during these crises had better survival rates than their male counterparts. That’s right; baby girls basically stared down famine and disease and said, “Not today”. So, what gives? According to science – and a new CNN-backed book titled The Stronger Sex – the female body is a marvel of survival engineering. Despite monthly bleeding, pregnancy (aka growing a human from scratch) and the general rollercoaster of hormones, women consistently outlive men. It’s like Mother Nature looked at the assignment and went “build to last”. Part of the secret lies in the chromosomes. Women are rocking two X chromosomes (which are loaded with immune-boosting genes) while men are stuck with a lonely Y that brings little to the survival party. According to evolutionary biologist Dr Sharon Moalem, this gives women a sort of immunological superpower. As he put it, “Women have immunologically evolved to out-mutate men.” Translation: their immune systems are like Swiss Army knives. Men's? More like... rusty butter knives. And hormones help too – specifically oestrogen, which acts like a biological bodyguard, boosting immune responses, upping antibody production and improving long-term disease resistance. Meanwhile, testosterone (the male hormone known for encouraging risky behaviour and unnecessary purchases of motorcycles) appears to weaken the immune system. In fact, early animal experiments showed that removing testosterone improved immunity. (No word on whether the animals also started asking for directions.) It gets better. Recent research has found that women’s small intestines are longer – which may not sound sexy, but is biologically brilliant. More intestine means more nutrients absorbed, which means better odds of surviving when calories are scarce. Essentially, women can squeeze more nutritional value out of a potato than a man can out of a steak. Add all that to the fact that women typically engage in fewer risky behaviours (looking at you, lawnmower-beer-balancing stunts), and you’ve got a recipe for a longer life. Even when women adopt some of the same bad habits as men (like smoking) they still tend to outlive them. Because of course they do. To be fair, there is a catch: women’s superhero immune systems can sometimes turn on them, leading to more autoimmune diseases and chronic conditions. But even then, women often live with those conditions longer than men would. So, what’s the takeaway here? For one, the next time someone calls women the “weaker sex”, feel free to laugh out loud. And second, it’s about time medicine caught up. Researchers argue that understanding these biological differences can help create more personalised healthcare – for all genders. In short: female bodies aren’t just built different. They’re built better, tougher and, according to science, longer-lasting; kind of like the biological version of a Toyota Hilux. Move over, Superman. It’s Superwoman who’s still standing. Image: Pexels / Chelsi Peter

Body

Why do some people need less sleep than others?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> Have you ever noticed how some people bounce out of bed after just a few hours of sleep, while others can barely function without a solid eight hours? Take Margaret Thatcher, for example. The former British prime minister was known for sleeping <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22084671">just four hours a night</a>. She worked late, rose early, and seemed to thrive on little sleep. But for most of us, that kind of sleep schedule would be disastrous. We’d be groggy, unfocused, and reaching for sugary snacks and caffeinated drinks by mid-morning. So why do some people seem to need less sleep than others? It’s a question that’s fascinated scientists for years. Here’s what we know so far. <h2>Natural short sleepers</h2> There is a small group of people who don’t need much sleep. We call them <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6879540/">natural short sleepers</a>. They can function perfectly well on just four to six hours of sleep each night, often for their entire lives. Generally they <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/44/Supplement_2/A154/6260529">don’t feel tired</a>, they don’t nap, and they don’t suffer the usual negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Scientists call this the natural short sleep phenotype – a biological trait that allows people to get all the benefits of sleep in less time. In 2010 researchers discovered genetic mutations that help explain this phenomenon. Natural short sleepers carry rare variants <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2884988/">in certain genes</a>, which seem to make their sleep more efficient. More recently, a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/epub/10.1073/pnas.2500356122">2025 study</a> assessed a woman in her 70s with one of these rare mutations. Despite sleeping just six hours a night for most of her life, she remained physically healthy, mentally sharp, and led a full, active life. Her body, it seems, was simply wired to need less sleep. We’re still learning about how common these genetic mutations are and why they occur. <h2>Not everyone who sleeps less is a natural short sleeper</h2> But here’s the catch: most people who think they’re natural short sleepers aren’t. They’re just chronically sleep-deprived. Often, their short sleep is due to long work hours, social commitments, or a belief sleeping less is a sign of strength or productivity. In today’s hustle culture, it’s common to hear people boast about getting by on only a few hours of sleep. But for the average person, that’s not sustainable. The effects of short sleep build up over time, creating what’s known as a “sleep debt”. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763417301641">can lead to</a> poor concentration, mood swings, micro-sleeps (brief lapses into sleep), reduced performance and even <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389945716301381">long-term health risks</a>. For example, short sleep has been linked to an increased risk of obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease (heart disease and stroke). <h2>The weekend catch-up dilemma</h2> To make up for lost sleep during the week, many people try to “catch up” on weekends. This can help repay some of the sleep debt that has accumulated in the short term. Research <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352721823001663?via%3Dihub">suggests</a> getting one to two extra hours of sleep on the weekend or taking naps when possible may help reduce the negative effects of short sleep. However, it’s not a perfect fix. Weekend catch-up sleep and naps may not fully resolve sleep debt. The topic remains one of ongoing scientific debate. A recent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/47/11/zsae135/7696120">large study</a> suggested weekend catch-up sleep may not offset the cardiovascular risks associated with chronic short sleep. What’s more, large swings in sleep timing can disrupt your body’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-03171-4">internal clock</a>, and sleeping in too much on weekends may make it harder to fall asleep on Sunday night, which can mean starting the working week less rested. Increasing evidence indicates <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/47/1/zsad253/7280269">repeated cycles of irregular sleep</a> may have an important influence on general health and the risk of early death, potentially even more so than how long we sleep for. Ultimately, while moderate catch-up sleep might offer some benefits, it’s no substitute for consistent, high-quality sleep throughout the week. That said, maintaining such regularity can be particularly challenging for people with non-traditional schedules, such as shift workers. <h2>So, was Thatcher a true natural short sleeper?</h2> It’s hard to say. Some reports suggest <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/aug/27/from-aristotle-to-einstein-a-brief-history-of-power-nappers">she napped during the day</a> in the back of a car between meetings. That could mean she was simply sleep-deprived and compensating for an accumulated sleep debt when she could. Separate to whether someone is a natural short sleeper, there are a range of other reasons people may need more or less sleep than others. Factors <a href="https://www.sleephealthfoundation.org.au/sleep-topics/how-much-sleep-do-you-really-need">such as age</a> and underlying health conditions can significantly influence sleep requirements. For example, older adults often experience changes in their circadian rhythms and are more likely to suffer from fragmented sleep due to conditions <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00702-019-02067-z">such as arthritis</a> or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11886-023-01939-x">cardiovascular disease</a>. Sleep needs vary from person to person, and while a lucky few can thrive on less, most of us need <a href="https://www.sleephealthfoundation.org.au/sleep-topics/how-much-sleep-do-you-really-need">seven to nine hours</a> a night to feel and function our best. If you’re regularly skimping on sleep and relying on weekends to catch up, it might be time to rethink your routine. After all, sleep isn’t a luxury – it’s a biological necessity.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/256342/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kelly-sansom-2390567">Kelly Sansom</a>, Research Associate, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University; Research Associate, Centre for Healthy Ageing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/murdoch-university-746">Murdoch University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/peter-eastwood-2316718">Peter Eastwood</a>, Deputy Vice Chancellor, Research and Innovation, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/murdoch-university-746">Murdoch University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-people-need-less-sleep-than-others-a-gene-variation-could-have-something-to-do-with-it-256342">original article</a>. Image: </div>

Body

Forming new habits can take longer than you think. Here are 8 tips to help you stick with them

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> If you’ve ever tried to build a new habit – whether that’s exercising more, eating healthier, or going to bed earlier – you may have heard the popular claim that it only takes 21 days to form a habit. It’s a neat idea. Short, encouraging and full of promise. But there’s just one problem: it’s not true. The 21-day myth can be traced back to <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0671700758/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0671700758&linkCode=as2&tag=jamesclear-20&linkId=6DQ32IRAG3LU4PKA">Maxwell Maltz</a>, a plastic surgeon in the 1960s, who observed it took about three weeks for his patients to adjust to physical changes. This idea was later picked up and repeated in self-help books, eventually becoming accepted wisdom. But as psychologists and behavioural scientists have since discovered, habit formation is <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-does-it-really-take-to-form-a-habit/">much more complex</a>. <h2>How long does it really take?</h2> A <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.674">2010 study</a> followed volunteers trying to build simple routines – such as drinking water after breakfast or eating a daily piece of fruit – and found it took a median of 66 days for the behaviour to become automatic. We recently <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488">reviewed several studies</a> looking at how long it took people to form health-related habits. We found, on average, it took around two to five months. Specifically, the studies that measured time to reach automaticity (when a behaviour becomes second nature) found that habit formation took between 59 and 154 days. Some people developed a habit in as few as four days. Others took nearly a year. This wide range highlights that habit formation isn’t one-size-fits-all. It depends on what the behaviour is, how often it’s repeated, how complex it is, and who’s doing it. <h2>What determines whether a habit will stick?</h2> Habit strength plays a key role in consistency. A <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626750/full">2021 systematic review</a> focused on physical activity and found the stronger the habit (meaning the more automatic and less effortful the behaviour felt) the more likely people were to exercise regularly. It’s not entirely surprising that easy, <a href="https://bjgp.org/content/62/605/664">low-effort behaviours</a> such as drinking water or taking a daily vitamin tend to form faster than complex ones like training for a marathon. But whatever the habit, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-024-00305-0">research shows</a> sticking to it is not just about boosting motivation or willpower. Interventions that actively support habit formation – through repetition, cues and structure – are much more effective for creating lasting change. For example, programs that encourage people to schedule regular exercise at the same time each day, or apps that send reminders to drink water after every meal, help build habits by making the behaviour easier to repeat and harder to forget. Our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488">research</a>, which drew on data from more than 2,600 people, showed habit-building interventions can make a real difference across a range of behaviours – from flossing and healthy eating to regular exercise. But what stood out most was that even small, everyday actions can grow into powerful routines, when repeated consistently. It’s not about overhauling your life overnight, but about steadily reinforcing behaviours until they become second nature. <h2>8 tips for building lasting habits</h2> If you’re looking to build a new habit, here are some science-backed tips to help them stick: <ol> <li> Give it time. Aim for consistency over <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488">60 days</a>. It’s not about perfection – missing a day won’t reset the clock. </li> <li> <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3505409/">Make it easy</a>. Start small. Choose a behaviour you can realistically repeat daily. </li> <li> Attach your new habit <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488">to an existing routine</a>. That is, make the new habit easier to remember by linking it to something you already do – such as flossing right before you brush your teeth. </li> <li> <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1801840">Track your progress</a>. Use a calendar or app to tick off each successful day. </li> <li> Build in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212267215011181?casa_token=-VKsr03fXOUAAAAA:pKV0oAB5VVuj8RcPAW5T7prjo3efSVpi6P6TXFoeTLHBX_vFK0ttF6tFM9-8Fp6o45XPu_lcij5d">rewards</a>, for example making a special coffee after a morning walk or watching an episode of your favourite show after a week of consistent workouts. Positive emotions help habits stick, so celebrate small wins. </li> <li> Morning is best. Habits practised <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fhea0000510">in the morning</a> tend to form more reliably than those attempted at night. This may be because people typically have more motivation and fewer distractions earlier in the day, making it easier to stick to new routines before daily demands build up. </li> <li> Personal choice boosts success. People are more likely to stick with habits <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00560/full">they choose themselves</a>. </li> <li> <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ejsp.674">Repetition</a> in a stable context is key. Performing the same behaviour in the same situation (such as walking right after lunch each day) increases the chances it will become automatic. </li> </ol> <h2>Why the 21-day myth matters</h2> Believing habits form in 21 days sets many people up to fail. When change doesn’t “click” within three weeks, it’s easy to feel like you’re doing something wrong. This can lead to frustration, guilt and giving up entirely. By contrast, understanding the real timeline can help you stay motivated when things feel slow. Evidence shows habit formation usually takes at least two months, and sometimes longer. But it also shows change is possible. Our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488">research</a> and <a href="https://bjgp.org/content/62/605/664">other evidence</a> confirm that repeated, intentional actions in stable contexts really do become automatic. Over time, new behaviours can feel effortless and deeply ingrained. So whether you’re trying to move more, eat better, or improve your sleep, the key isn’t speed – it’s consistency. Stick with it. With time, the habit will stick with you.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/255118/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ben-singh-1297213">Ben Singh</a>, Research Fellow, Allied Health & Human Performance, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ashleigh-e-smith-201327">Ashleigh E. Smith</a>, Associate Professor, Healthy Ageing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/forming-new-habits-can-take-longer-than-you-think-here-are-8-tips-to-help-you-stick-with-them-255118">original article</a>. Image: Shuttertock </div>

Mind

Brain disorder more common than MS – but often goes undiagnosed

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> Imagine suddenly losing the ability to move a limb, walk or speak. You would probably recognise this as a medical emergency and get to hospital. Now imagine the doctors at the hospital run some tests and then say, “Good news! All your tests were normal, clear scans, and nothing is wrong. You can go home!” Yet, you are still experiencing very real and disabling symptoms. Unfortunately, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2024.2333491">this is the experience of many people</a> with functional neurological disorder. Even worse, some are blamed and reprimanded for <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/148/1/27/7750481?login=false">exaggerating</a> or faking their symptoms. So, what is this disorder, and why is it so challenging to recognise and treat? <h2>What is functional neurological disorder?</h2> <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/neurological-disorders">Neurological disorders</a> are conditions that affect how the nervous system works. The nervous system sends and receives messages between the brain and other parts of your body to regulate a wide range of functions, such as movement, speaking, vision, thinking and digestion. To the untrained eye, functional neurological disorder can resemble other conditions such as stroke, multiple sclerosis or epilepsy. But, unlike these conditions, functional neurological symptoms <a href="https://neurosymptoms.org/en/causes/how-was-it-happened/">aren’t due</a> to damage or a disease process affecting the nervous system. This means the disorder doesn’t appear on routine brain imaging and other tests. Functional symptoms are, instead, due to dysfunction in the processing of information between several brain networks. Simply put, <a href="https://neurosymptoms.org/en/causes/how-was-it-happened/">it’s a problem</a> of the brain’s software, not the hardware. <h2>What are the symptoms?</h2> Functional neurological disorder can produce a kaleidoscope of diverse and changing symptoms. This often adds to confusion for patients and make diagnosis more challenging. <a href="https://neurosymptoms.org/en/symptoms/">Symptoms</a> may include paralysis or abnormal movements such as tremors, jerks and tics. This often leads to difficulty walking or coordinating movements. Sensory symptoms may involve numbness, tingling or loss of vision. Dissociative symptoms, such as functional seizures and blackouts, are also common. Some people experience cognitive symptoms including brain fog or problems finding the right words. Fatigue and chronic pain frequently coexist with these symptoms. These symptoms can be severe and distressing and, without treatment, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31167232/">can persist for years</a>. For example, some people with functional neurological disorder cannot walk and must use a wheelchair for decades. Diagnosis involves <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m3745">identifying established diagnostic signs</a> and ensuring no other diagnoses are missed. This process is best carried out by an experienced neurologist or neuropsychiatrist. <h2>How common is it?</h2> Functional neurological disorder is one of the most common medical conditions seen in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.3753">emergency care</a> and in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awp220">outpatient neurology clinics</a>. It affects around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2024-334767">10–22 people per 100,000 per year</a>. This makes it more common than multiple sclerosis. Despite this, it is often under-recognised and misunderstood by health-care professionals. This leads to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/148/1/27/7750481?login=false">delays in diagnosis and treatment</a>. This lack of awareness also contributes to the perception that it’s rare, when it’s actually common among neurological disorders. <h2>Who does functional neurological disorder affect?</h2> This condition can affect anyone, although it is more common in women and younger people. Around two thirds of patients are female, but this <a href="https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/93/6/609">gender disparity reduces with age</a>. Understanding of the disorder has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33722822/">developed significantly over the past few decades</a>, but there’s still more to learn. Several biological, psychological, and social factors can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35430029/">predispose people</a>. Genetics, traumatic life experiences, anxiety and depression can increase the risk. Stressful life events, illness, or physical injuries can trigger or worsen existing symptoms. But not everyone with the disorder has experienced significant trauma or stress. <h2>How is it treated?</h2> If left untreated, about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz138">half the people</a> with this condition will remain the same or their symptoms will worsen. However, with the help of experienced clinicians, many people can make rapid recoveries when treatment starts early. There are no specific medications for functional neurological disorder but personalised rehabilitation guided by experienced clinicians is <a href="https://fndhope.org/living-fnd/">recommended</a>. Some people may need a team of multidisciplinary clinicians that may include physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, psychologists and doctors. People also need accurate information about their condition, because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws129">understanding and beliefs</a> about the disorder play an important role in recovery. Accurate information helps patients to develop more realistic expectations, reduces anxiety and can empower people to be more active in their recovery. Treating common co-existing conditions, such as anxiety or depression, can also <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/376/bmj.o64.abstract">be helpful</a>. <h2>A dark history</h2> The origins of the disorder are deeply rooted in the sexist <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8564048/">history of its pre-scientific ancestor – hysteria</a>. The legacy of hysteria has cast a long shadow, contributing to a misogynistic bias in perception and treatment. This historical context has led to ongoing stigma, where symptoms were often labelled as psychological and not warranting treatment. Women with functional symptoms often face scepticism and dismissal. In some cases, <a href="https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/94/10/855">significant harm</a> occurs through stigmatisation, inadequate care and poor management. Modern medicine has attempted to address these biases by recognising functional neurological disorder as a legitimate condition. A <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11414792/">lack of education</a> for medical professionals likely contributes to stigma. Many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2019.06.008">clinicians report low confidence and knowledge</a> about their ability to manage the disorder. <h2>A bright future?</h2> Fortunately, awareness, research and interest has grown over the past decade. Many treatment approaches are being trialled, including <a href="https://www.physio4fmd.org/">specialist physiotherapy</a>, <a href="https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/92/1/36.abstract">psychological therapies</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35115389/">non-invasive brain stimulation</a>. Patient-led organisations and <a href="https://fndhope.org/">support networks</a> are making headway advocating for improvements in health systems, research and education. The goal is to unite patients, their families, clinicians, and researchers to advance a new standard of care across the world.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/250501/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/benjamin-scrivener-2329913">Benjamin Scrivener</a>, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-auckland-waipapa-taumata-rau-1305">University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/tremors-seizures-and-paralysis-this-brain-disorder-is-more-common-than-multiple-sclerosis-but-often-goes-undiagnosed-250501">original article</a>. Image: Shutterstock </div>

Body

Incredible new pacemaker tinier than a grain of rice

Engineers from Northwestern University in the US have developed a groundbreaking pacemaker so tiny that it can fit inside the tip of a syringe – is smaller than a grain of rice – and be non-invasively injected into the body. This innovation could revolutionise cardiac care by offering a minimally invasive alternative to traditional pacemakers. "We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world's smallest pacemaker," said bioelectronics pioneer John A Rogers, who led the development. The small, wireless device is biocompatible and designed to be gradually broken down and absorbed by the body, reducing the need for surgical extraction. Rogers and his colleagues tested the effectiveness of their tiny, temporary pacemaker in human heart tissue and animal models. Measuring just 1.8mm by 3.5mm by 1mm, the device is smaller than any previously reported pacemaker. It is paired with a soft, flexible, wireless wearable device mounted on a patient’s chest, which controls the pacing. When an irregular heartbeat is detected, the wearable device emits a light pulse that penetrates through the skin, breastbone and muscles to activate the pacemaker and regulate heart rhythm. While designed to work for hearts of all sizes, the pacemaker is particularly well-suited for newborns with congenital heart defects. Northwestern experimental cardiologist Igor Efimov, who co-led the study, said this device could play a critical role in the effective treatment of infants. "Our major motivation was children," Efimov explained. "About 1 percent of children are born with congenital heart defects, regardless of whether they live in a low-resource or high-resource country. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after surgery. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical." Researchers believe this pacemaker could provide a safer alternative to traditional pacemakers for temporary pacing in patients with bradycardia, a condition characterised by a resting heart rate below 60 beats per minute. Additionally, they suggest that the technology’s versatility could extend to broader medical applications in bioelectronic medicine, such as aiding nerve and bone healing and blocking pain. This revolutionary development represents a significant step forward in cardiac treatment, potentially improving outcomes for both infants and adults requiring temporary heart pacing. Images: Northwestern University

Body

How long will you live? New evidence says it’s much more about your choices than your genes

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> One of the most enduring questions humans have is how long we’re going to live. With this comes the question of how much of our lifespan is shaped by our environment and choices, and how much is predetermined by our genes. A study recently published in the prestigious journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03483-9">Nature Medicine</a> has attempted for the first time to quantify the relative contributions of our environment and lifestyle versus our genetics in how we age and how long we live. The findings were striking, suggesting our environment and lifestyle play a much greater role than our genes in determining our longevity. <h2>What the researchers did</h2> This study used data from the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/">UK Biobank</a>, a large database in the United Kingdom that contains in-depth health and lifestyle data from roughly 500,000 people. The data available include genetic information, medical records, imaging and information about lifestyle. A separate part of the study used data from a subset of more than 45,000 participants whose blood samples underwent something called “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41576-022-00511-7">proteomic profiling</a>”. Proteomic profiling is a relatively new technique that looks at how proteins in the body change over time to identify a person’s age at a molecular level. By using this method researchers were able to estimate how quickly an individual’s body was actually ageing. This is called their biological age, as opposed to their chronological age (or years lived). The researchers assessed 164 environmental exposures as well as participants’ genetic markers for disease. Environmental exposures included lifestyle choices (for example, smoking, physical activity), social factors (for example, living conditions, household income, employment status) and early life factors, such as body weight in childhood. They then looked for associations between genetics and environment and 22 major age-related diseases (such as coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes), mortality and biological ageing (as determined by the proteomic profiling). These analyses allowed the researchers to estimate the relative contributions of environmental factors and genetics to ageing and dying prematurely. <h2>What did they find?</h2> When it came to disease-related mortality, as we would expect, age and sex explained a significant amount (about half) of the variation in how long people lived. The key finding, however, was environmental factors collectively accounted for around 17% of the variation in lifespan, while genetic factors contributed less than 2%. This finding comes down very clearly on the nurture side in the “nature versus nurture” debate. It suggests environmental factors influence health and longevity to a far greater extent than genetics. Not unexpectedly, the study showed a different mix of environmental and genetic influences for different diseases. Environmental factors had the greatest impact on lung, heart and liver disease, while genetics played the biggest role in determining a person’s risk of breast, ovarian and prostate cancers, and dementia. The environmental factors that had the most influence on earlier death and biological ageing included smoking, socioeconomic status, physical activity levels and living conditions. Interestingly, being taller at age ten was found to be associated with a shorter lifespan. Although this may seem surprising, and the reasons are not entirely clear, this aligns with <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/05/140509110756.htm">previous research</a> finding taller people are more likely to die earlier. Carrying more weight at age ten and maternal smoking (if your mother smoked in late pregnancy or when you were a newborn) were also found to shorten lifespan. Probably the most surprising finding in this study was a lack of association between diet and markers of biological ageing, as determined by the proteomic profiling. This flies in the face of the extensive body of evidence showing the crucial role of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-023-00868-w">dietary patterns</a> in chronic disease risk and longevity. But there are a number of plausible explanations for this. The first could be a lack of statistical power in the part of the study looking at biological ageing. That is, the number of people studied may have been too small to allow the researchers to see the true impact of diet on ageing. Second, the dietary data in this study, which was self-reported and only measured at one time point, is likely to have been of relatively poor quality, limiting the researchers’ ability to see associations. And third, as the relationship between diet and longevity is likely to be complex, disentangling dietary effects from other lifestyle factors may be difficult. So despite this finding, it’s still safe to say the food we eat is one of the most important pillars of health and longevity. <h2>What other limitations do we need to consider?</h2> Key exposures (such as diet) in this study were only measured at a single point in time, and not tracked over time, introducing potential errors into the results. Also, as this was an observational study, we can’t assume associations found represent causal relationships. For example, just because living with a partner correlated with a longer lifespan, it doesn’t mean this caused a person to live longer. There may be other factors which explain this association. Finally, it’s possible this study may have underestimated the role of genetics in longevity. It’s important to recognise genetics and environment don’t operate in isolation. Rather, health outcomes are shaped by their interplay, and this study may not have fully captured the complexity of these interactions. <h2>The future is (largely) in your hands</h2> It’s worth noting there were a number of factors such as household income, home ownership and employment status associated with diseases of ageing in this study that are not necessarily within a person’s control. This highlights the crucial role of addressing the social determinants of health to ensure everyone has the best possible chance of living a long and healthy life. At the same time, the results offer an empowering message that longevity is largely shaped by the choices we make. This is great news, unless you have good genes and were hoping they would do the heavy lifting. Ultimately, the results of this study reinforce the notion that while we may inherit certain genetic risks, how we eat, move and engage with the world seems to be more important in determining how healthy we are and how long we live.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/251054/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hassan-vally-202904">Hassan Vally</a>, Associate Professor, Epidemiology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-will-you-live-new-evidence-says-its-much-more-about-your-choices-than-your-genes-251054">original article</a>. Image: Shutterstock </div>

Caring

Mystery illness kills more than 50 people within hours

An unknown illness has killed more than 50 people in northwestern Congo over the past five weeks, according doctors on the ground and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The interval between the onset of symptoms - which include fever, vomiting and internal bleeding - and death has been 48 hours in the majority of cases, and “that’s what’s really worrying”, according to Serge Ngalebato, medical director of Bikoro Hospital, a regional monitoring centre. The outbreak began on January 21, with 419 cases recorded including 53 deaths. According to WHO's Africa office, the outbreak began in the town of Boloko after three children ate a bat and died within 48 hours following the “hemorrhagic fever” symptoms. While these symptoms are commonly linked to known deadly viruses, such as Ebola, dengue, Marburg and yellow fever, researchers have ruled these out following a series of tests of more than a dozen samples collected so far. The tests were conducted after the second outbreak of the mystery disease in the town of Bomate on February 9, with samples from 13 cases sent to the National Institute for Biomedical Research in DR Congo’s capital Kinshasa for testing, the WHO said. All samples were negative for common hemorrhagic fever diseases, although some tested positive for malaria. The number of outbreaks from diseases spreading from animals to humans in places where wild animals are popularly eaten has been a concern, with outbreaks in Africa surging by more than 60 per cent in the last decade, the WHO said in 2022. Last year, another mystery flu-like illness that killed dozens of people in another part of Congo was determined to be likely malaria. Image: Shutterstock

Caring

Being carers costs women more than $500,000 over a lifetime, leaving them with less in retirement than men

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/myra-hamilton-8638">Myra Hamilton</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> By the time they retire, women typically have about <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-97-5461-8">one third</a> less superannuation than men. This can amount to more than <a href="https://www.carersaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Final-Economic-impact-income-and-retirement-Evaluate-Report-March-2022_2024EDIT.pdf">$500,000</a> when wages and super are combined over their lifetime. The gendered super gap has narrowed over the last few decades, as women have joined the workforce <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/changing-female-employment-over-time#:%7E:text=Women's%20participation%20in%20paid%20work,women%20are%20also%20working%20longer.">in increasing numbers</a> and the superannuation system has matured. But progress is too slow. If we keep tracking as we are, we can’t expect parity until <a href="https://www.womeninsuper.com.au/application/files/3816/8782/3898/7._Not_up_for_discussion.pdf">2070</a>. So why is the gap so persistent? <h2>Making super compulsory</h2> For most of the 20th century, Australia’s retirement incomes system produced more equal outcomes because the age pension is not linked to a person’s lifetime earnings. But the introduction of <a href="https://www.australianretirementtrust.com.au/learn/education-hub/superannuation-history-australia">compulsory super</a> in 1992 linked lifetime earnings and retirement income. The gender super gap arises because women and men have different patterns of paid work and earning over their lifetimes. Women have <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/the-gender-pay-gap#:%7E:text=conscious%20and%20unconscious%20discrimination%20and,responsibilities%2C%20especially%20in%20senior%20roles">14% lower</a> average weekly earnings than men. This is due to <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/the-gender-pay-gap#:%7E:text=conscious%20and%20unconscious%20discrimination%20and,responsibilities%2C%20especially%20in%20senior%20roles">three factors</a>: <ul> <li> women are much more likely to have unpaid care responsibilities. As a result, they take career breaks, work fewer hours, or work in jobs incommensurate with their skills </li> <li> discrimination, bias and lack of workplace flexibility mean better pay and career outcomes for men and fewer opportunities for people to combine work and career with care responsibilities </li> <li> occupational segregation means women are concentrated in female-dominated industries, which tend to attract lower wages than male-dominated ones. </li> </ul> Over a lifetime, these factors limit women’s capacity to earn and to accumulate super. On average, a woman in full-time permanent employment accumulates <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Women%27s%20economic%20security%20in%20retirement.pdf">17.7% less</a> superannuation per year than a man in an equivalent role. That amounts to A$1,540 less per year. This annual shortfall compounds over time resulting in a wide gender super gap by the time women retire. <h2>How does this work in practice?</h2> The interruptions to work caused by providing unpaid care reduces people’s opportunities for accumulating superannuation. For example, having a child leads to substantial reductions in mothers’ workforce participation and earnings. Women’s earnings <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-03/p2023-372004.pdf">fall</a> by an average of 55% in the first five years after entry into parenthood. In contrast, research suggests men’s earnings are <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-03/p2023-372004.pdf">unchanged</a>, or even <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5340267/#:%7E:text=Over%20time%2C%20unmarried%20but%20coresident,support%20for%20egalitarian%20gender%20roles.">increase</a>, after they become parents. So parenthood has a much greater impact on a mothers’ super than a fathers’. One <a href="https://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/assets/documents/hilda-bibliography/hilda-conference-papers/2007/Parr,-Nicholas_final-paper.pdf">estimate</a> suggests having a child reduces a woman’s superannuation balance at age 60 by about $50,000 and a man’s by $5,000. It’s not just parenthood. <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/informal-carers">One in 10</a> Australians provide care for an ageing relative or person with a disability or chronic illness. Women do most of this unpaid care. Unpaid carers <a href="https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/view/journals/ijcc/6/3/article-p318.xml">often</a> reduce their working hours, withdraw from work, or put their careers on hold. Among primary carers <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/gender-equality-and-caring#:%7E:text=Primary%20carers%20are%20carers%20who,carers">only 58%</a> are in paid work. According to a <a href="https://www.carersaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Final-Economic-impact-income-and-retirement-Evaluate-Report-March-2022_2024EDIT.pdf">recent study</a>, on average, by age 67, primary carers have lost $392,500 in lifetime earnings and $175,000 in super. Some older workers, especially women, also care for their grandchildren. More than a <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-07/Grandparents%20and%20child%20care%20in%20Australia_0.pdf">quarter</a> of grandparents of a child aged 13 or under provide care for the child in a typical week, usually while the parents work. In a <a href="https://nationalseniors.com.au/uploads/09151356PAC_GrandparentsChildcareLabourForceParticipation_Report_FINAL_Web_0.pdf">recent</a> study, 70% of grandparents, mostly grandmothers, providing regular childcare reported they adjusted their work to accommodate it. One in three reported it had negative impacts on their financial security as they aged. These factors compound over a lifetime. Many Australians provide care for multiple family members simultaneously, or at different times throughout their lives. Women in employment are more likely to be in lower paid positions, and lower paid industries and occupations. Employees in feminised industries such as community services (including paid care workers) and retail have among the <a href="https://www.superannuation.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2311_An_update_on_superannuation_account_balances_Paper_V2.pdf">lowest</a> median super balances, less than half of those of managers and professionals. <h2>What is the solution?</h2> The gender super gap reflects deep inequalities in the distribution of work, incomes and care responsibilities between women and men across their lives. How do we fix it? Policy and public debate has focused on boosting women’s workforce participation. More women in work, means higher incomes and more saving, reducing the gender super gap, right? Yes, up to a point and rates of <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/changing-female-employment-over-time">women’s workforce participation</a> are increasing. But we also know in Australia, we have a <a href="https://nationalseniors.com.au/uploads/09151356PAC_GrandparentsChildcareLabourForceParticipation_Report_FINAL_Web_0.pdf">preference</a> for some family care of young children, and for care of adults with disability and older people in the <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/australias-welfare-2017-in-brief/contents/ageing-aged-care">community</a>. This means many parents and carers will continue to have at least some interruptions to paid work, reducing their super contributions. We also know when women are encouraged to enter paid work, care responsibilities are often “redistributed” to other women. When mothers enter or re-enter paid work it’s often <a href="https://theconversation.com/caught-in-an-intergenerational-squeeze-grandparents-juggle-work-and-childcare-47939">grandmothers</a> who step in, frequently reducing their incomes and super. For care of ageing <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/abs/an-integrative-analysis-of-sibling-influences-on-adult-childrens-caregiving-for-parents/038C6F299E62380F9C954A9A586A28CD">parents</a> it is often non-working female siblings that step in. As the savings potential of one group of women increases, the savings potential of another decreases. Where care can’t be redistributed to other women within the family, it is redistributed to paid early childhood education and care, disability support, and aged care services. All of these services are dominated by women. As a highly feminised industry, the caring roles are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-14/why-are-nurses-and-childcare-workers-so-poorly-paid/104218868">poorly remunerated</a>, so those doing the care, while paid, are themselves limited to save enough super. Boosting women’s workforce participation is an important step. But another is to pay super contributions to parents during the time they are off work providing childcare, as <a href="https://ministers.pmc.gov.au/gallagher/2024/super-boost-new-parents#:%7E:text=It%20means%20that%20eligible%20parents,to%20their%20nominated%20superannuation%20fund.">recently</a> agreed by the federal government. But we need an <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/newsroom/news/2015/04/carers-deserve-more-credit-in-the-retirement-incomes-debate">equivalent</a> for other kinds of unpaid carers. Even so, as long as care continues to circulate between different groups of women – older women, low paid women – and as long as care isn’t valued for the large social and economic contribution it makes, the gender super gap will persist. To close the persistent gender gap, we need to go further, encouraging greater men’s involvement in care, and providing better recognition and remuneration of unpaid and paid care. <hr /> This article is part of The Conversation’s retirement series, in which experts examine issues including how much money we need to retire, retiring with debt, the psychological impact of retiring and the benefits of getting financial advice. Read the rest of the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/retirement-series-2024-168372">here</a>.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/240323/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/myra-hamilton-8638">Myra Hamilton</a>, Associate Professor, gender, ageing and care, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/being-carers-costs-women-more-than-500-000-over-a-lifetime-leaving-them-with-less-in-retirement-than-men-240323">original article</a>. </div>

Money & Banking

More than 100 people duped in FB scam at Queensland couple's home

Leah and Gerard thought they had the perfect home. Peaceful neighbourhood, quiet street – until they were unwittingly transformed into the hottest discount superstore on Facebook Marketplace. The problem? They weren’t selling anything. “No idea why it’s happened to us,” Gerard told <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/scam-sees-a-hundred-people-turn-up-outside-queensland-couples-home/92763d2a-43ac-4596-a4d1-1d97f131ec2c" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nine News</a>, still baffled by how their address became ground zero for a digital yard sale they never signed up for. It all began with a single, seemingly innocent knock at the door. A woman, hopeful and cash in hand, arrived to claim a bicycle she had “purchased” online. Leah and Gerard, unaware of their new status as involuntary retail moguls, had to break the news. But the knocks kept coming. And coming. And coming. “We had more than 100 people show up to our home looking for items that we supposedly had for sale, that we did not,” Leah said. From TVs to mattresses to outdoor furniture, their house was now the delivery hub of a scammer’s wildest dreams. If only Leah and Gerard had actually been running a secondhand store – they might have made a fortune. It wasn’t just a daytime ordeal either. These determined bargain hunters weren’t about to let something like the absence of an actual seller stop them. “They would arrive anywhere from 7:30 in the morning, right through until 10-10:30 at night,” Leah said. Some shoppers had even paid deposits in advance, while others went the extra mile – hiring Airtaskers to pick up non-existent goods. “So not good,” Gerard added, in what is arguably the understatement of the year. According to cyber support group ID Care, this isn’t an isolated incident. Scammers are increasingly using real addresses to make their fake listings seem legitimate. It’s an ingenious, if completely infuriating, tactic. “We find with many of the victims that are giving money, they’re also giving away scanned copies of their driver’s licence for example,” ID Care chief executive Dave Lacey said. And with identity theft a real concern, it turns out a too-good-to-be-true deal might end up costing you far more than just a missing couch. Leah and Gerard eventually took matters into their own hands, erecting a warning sign in their driveway to spare themselves from yet another disappointed customer. Their makeshift security checkpoint seemed to work, finally deterring the flood of hopeful buyers. Meanwhile, their local MP stepped in to get Meta to remove the scammer’s listing – presumably after realising that Facebook Marketplace doesn’t come with a customer service hotline. For Marketplace shoppers, the lesson is clear: If a deal seems too good to be true, it probably is. If the seller doesn’t have a real profile or their photos look like they came from a stock image catalogue, proceed with caution. And, of course, always double-check the pickup address before showing up at a random couple’s doorstep demanding a TV! After all, Leah and Gerard have been through enough. “We’re just thankful that it’s stopped,” Gerard said. And somewhere in Queensland, a fake seller is already on the lookout for their next unsuspecting “storefront”. Images: Nine News

Legal

Why do some people’s hair and nails grow quicker than mine?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-moscova-310728">Michelle Moscova</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/unsw-sydney-1414">UNSW Sydney</a> Throughout recorded history, our hair and nails played an important role in signifying who <a href="https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/gender-culture-and-social-constructs-in-body-focused-repetitive-behaviors">we are and our social status</a>. You could say, they separate the caveman from businessman. It was no surprise then that many of us found a new level of appreciation for our hairdressers and nail artists during the COVID lockdowns. Even Taylor Swift reported <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/taylor-swift-reveals-shes-cutting-hair-covid-19/story?id=74757540&t">she cut her own hair during lockdown</a>. So, what would happen if all this hair and nail grooming got too much for us and we decided to give it all up. Would our hair and nails just keep on growing? The answer is yes. The hair on our head grows, on average, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917549/">1 centimeter per month</a>, while our fingernails grow an average of just <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11436330/">over 3 millimetres</a>. When left unchecked, our hair and nails can grow to impressive lengths. Aliia Nasyrova, known as the Ukrainian Rapunzel, holds the world record for the longest locks on a living woman, which measure an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TdlEIQdVwo&t=81s">impressive 257.33 cm</a>. When it comes to record-breaking fingernails, Diana Armstrong from the United States holds that record <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwql937j-7Q">at 1,306.58 cm</a>. Most of us, however, get regular haircuts and trim our nails – some with greater frequency than others. So why do some people’s hair and nails grow more quickly? <h2>Remind me, what are they made out of?</h2> Hair and nails are made mostly from keratin. Both grow from matrix cells below the skin and grow through different patterns of cell division. Nails grow steadily from the matrix cells, which sit under the skin at the base of the nail. These cells divide, pushing the older cells forward. As they grow, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5383514/">the new cells slide</a> along the nail bed – the flat area under the fingernail which looks pink because of its rich blood supply. A hair also starts growing from the matrix cells, eventually forming the visible part of the hair – the shaft. The hair shaft grows from a root that sits under the skin and is wrapped in a sac known as the hair follicle. This sac has a nerve supply (which is why it hurts to pull out a hair), oil-producing glands that lubricate the hair and a tiny muscle that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546248/">makes your hair stand up</a> when it’s cold. At the follicle’s base is the hair bulb, which contains the all-important hair papilla that supplies blood to the follicle. Matrix cells near the papilla divide to produce new hair cells, which then harden and form the hair shaft. As the new hair cells are made, the hair is pushed up above the skin <a href="https://www.jidonline.org/article/S0022-202X(15)41553-2/fulltext">and the hair grows</a>. But the papilla also plays an integral part in regulating hair growth cycles, as it sends signals to the stem cells to move to the base of the follicle and form a hair matrix. Matrix cells then get signals to divide and start a new growth phase. <h2>Unlike nails, our hair grows in cycles</h2> Scientists have identified <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917549/">four phases of hair growth</a>, the: <ol> <li> anagen or growth phase, which lasts between two and eight years </li> <li> catagen or transition phase, when growth slows down, lasting around two weeks </li> <li> telogen or resting phase, when there is no growth at all. This usually lasts two to three months </li> <li> exogen or shedding phase, when the hair falls out and is replaced by the new hair growing from the same follicle. This starts the process all over again. </li> </ol> <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/637402/original/file-20241210-15-gtv259.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Stages of hair growth graphic" /><figcaption>Hair follicles enter these phases at different times so we’re not left bald. <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/stages-hair-growth-cycle-vector-isolated-2433656865">Mosterpiece/Shutterstock</a></figcaption></figure> Each follicle goes through this cycle <a href="https://www.longdom.org/open-access/a-note-on-the-human-hair-follicle-from-the-origin-to-the-death-93871.html?t">10–30 times in its lifespan</a>. If all of our hair follicles grew at the same rate and entered the same phases simultaneously, there would be times when we would all be bald. That doesn’t usually happen: at any given time, only one in ten hairs is in the resting phase. While we lose about <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917549/">100–150 hairs daily</a>, the average person has <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917549/">100,000 hairs</a> on their head, so we barely notice this natural shedding. <h2>So what affects the speed of growth?</h2> Genetics is the most significant factor. While hair growth rates vary between individuals, they tend to be <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4201279/">consistent among family members</a>. Nails are also influenced by genetics, as siblings, especially identical twins, tend to have <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-26594-0_121-1">similar nail growth rates</a>. But there are also other influences. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917549/">Age makes a difference</a> to hair and <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-26594-0_121-1">nail</a> growth, even in healthy people. Younger people generally have faster growth rates because of the slowing metabolism and cell division that comes with ageing. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7432488/">Hormonal changes</a> can have an impact. Pregnancy often <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7432488/">accelerates</a> hair and nail growth rates, while menopause and high levels of the stress hormone cortisol can <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7432488/">slow growth rates</a>. Nutrition also changes <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6380979/">hair</a> and <a href="https://ijdvl.com/nails-in-nutritional-deficiencies/?t">nail</a> strength and growth rate. While hair and nails are made mostly of keratin, they also contain water, fats and various minerals. As hair and nails keep growing, these minerals need to be replaced. That’s why a balanced diet that includes sufficient nutrients to support your hair and nails is essential for maintaining their health. Nutrient deficiencies may contribute to hair loss and nail breakage by disrupting their growth cycle or weakening their structure. Iron and zinc deficiencies, for example, have both been linked to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6380979/">hair loss</a> and <a href="https://ijdvl.com/nails-in-nutritional-deficiencies/?t">brittle nails</a>. This may explain why thick hair and strong, well-groomed nails have long been associated with perception of good health and high status. However, not all perceptions are true. <h2>No, hair and nails don’t grow after death</h2> A persistent myth that may relate to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/vampire">the legends of vampires</a> is that hair and nails continue to grow after we die. In reality, they only appear to do so. As the body dehydrates after death, the skin shrinks, making hair and nails <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2151163/">seem longer</a>. Morticians are well aware of this phenomenon and some <a href="https://www.adomonline.com/mortuary-man-reveals-how-he-handles-nails-of-the-dead/?t">inject tissue filler</a> into the deceased’s fingertips to minimise this effect. So, it seems that living or dead, there is no escape from the never-ending task of caring for our hair and nails.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/241556/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-moscova-310728">Michelle Moscova</a>, Adjunct Associate Professor, Anatomy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/unsw-sydney-1414">UNSW Sydney</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-peoples-hair-and-nails-grow-quicker-than-mine-241556">original article</a>. </div>

Body

Six covers of Bob Dylan songs that were better than the originals

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/glenn-fosbraey-424079">Glenn Fosbraey</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-winchester-743">University of Winchester</a> He may never have strayed far from the minds of many music fans, but with his biopic A Complete Unknown hitting UK cinemas on January 17 and heartthrob Timothée Chalamet in the lead role, Bob Dylan may be about to gain an entirely new audience. Considered by many to be the <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/bob-dylan-on-the-simple-reason-he-became-a-songwriter/">greatest songwriter of all time</a>, Dylan’s influence on music can’t be understated. His voice, however, has divided listeners over the decades. Some find it <a href="https://www.insidehook.com/music/bob-dylan-singing-voice#:%7E:text=His%20voice%20has%20articulated%20an,has%20sounded%20like%20him%20since.">“mesmeric”</a> and others have likened it to that of <a href="https://www.insidehook.com/music/bob-dylan-singing-voice#:%7E:text=His%20voice%20has%20articulated%20an,has%20sounded%20like%20him%20since.">“a dog with his leg caught in barbed wire”</a>. Despite having, as a researcher of songwriting, something of a penchant for Dylan’s idiosyncratic and character-filled style, here are six covers of his songs which I believe outperform his versions. <iframe style="border-radius: 12px;" src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/playlist/7epeDOmTqTFJbJ4q8P5RtW?utm_source=generator" width="100%" height="152" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" loading="lazy"></iframe> <h2>1. Girl from the North Country by Eels</h2> Girl from the North Country first appeared on Dylan’s 1963 album The Freewheelin’ Bob Dylan. But it featured again on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Je4Eg77YSSA">Nashville Skyline</a> in 1969 as a duet with Johnny Cash. That version has been praised for the <a href="https://www.musicradar.com/news/bob-dylan-making-of-nashville-skyline">skip and groove of the acoustic guitar performances</a> and how Dylan and Cash’s vocals are <a href="https://www.musicradar.com/news/bob-dylan-making-of-nashville-skyline">instinctive and spontaneous</a>. Another view would be that the guitars are out of time and the vocals are under-rehearsed – and the same shortcomings are on display during the song’s performance on the <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/johnny-cash-bob-dylan-duet-girl-north-country/">Johnny Cash show</a>. Far superior in my humble opinion is the 2005 version by alt-rock band Eels. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OOCOxRIB2Zo?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>Girl from the North Country by Eels.</figcaption></figure> The band performed the song for their <a href="https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xv3eel">Eels with Strings: Live at Town Hall</a> DVD and album. Band leader Mark Everett switched it from acoustic guitar to piano. His gentle arpeggiated playing complemented his <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/feb/27/popandrock.mainsection">gruff yet tender</a> vocals and drew every drop of emotion out of the lyrics and melody. He keeps in time, too. <h2>2. Mr Tambourine Man by The Byrds</h2> A masterclass in lyric writing, Mr Tambourine Man (1965) saw Dylan <a href="https://genius.com/Bob-dylan-mr-tambourine-man-lyrics">flexing his linguistic muscles</a> to reel off dozens of intricate internal and end rhymes, including my personal favourite: <blockquote> Though I know that evening’s empire has returned into sand Vanished from my hand Left me blindly here to stand, but still not sleeping. </blockquote> The Byrds’ version, released in the same year and hitting number one in both the US and the UK, isn’t better than the brilliant original (how could it be?) but it is brilliantly different. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Swqw5a8I4b4?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>The Byrds’ version of Mr Tambourine Man.</figcaption></figure> Abridging Dylan’s version in order to make for a more palatable running time for the singles market, what it lacks in lyrics it more than makes up for in melody. The harmonies in the chorus add to Dylan’s main vocal line. It was an era-defining moment that launched the folk-rock genre. <h2>3. All Along The Watchtower by The Jimi Hendrix Experience</h2> Dylan may have released the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bT7Hj-ea0VE">original version</a> of All Along The Watchtower on his John Wesley Harding album in 1967, but it was <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLV4_xaYynY">The Jimi Hendrix Experience’s cover</a>, released just six months later, which has largely been accepted as the definitive recording. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/NdSyFxTDQUM?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>All Along the Watchtower performed by Jimi Hendrix.</figcaption></figure> Taking Dylan’s gentle acoustic guitar and harmonica number and feeding it through his legendary white Strat, Hendrix rocks seven shades of summer out of the song until it takes on a completely new life. So great was his reinterpretation (it seems derisive to merely label it a “cover”) that as well as being ranked at number 40 in Rolling Stone’s <a href="https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-songs-of-all-time-30065/the-jimi-hendrix-experience-all-along-the-watchtower-30527/">500 Greatest Songs of All Time</a> list, Dylan amended the song’s structure for <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/what-did-bob-dylan-think-jimi-hendrix-version-along-the-watchtower/">later live performances</a> in order for it to be more like Hendrix’s. <h2>4. If Not For You by George Harrison</h2> Granted, I only heard Dylan’s recording of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyouhbgAiCA">If Not For You</a> after already being familiar with George Harrison’s version included on his 1970 album <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XscuV_R6tr4">All Things Must Pass</a> for several years, so it was always going to feel slightly foreign to me. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E28E1hEZN8g?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>George Harrison performs If Not For You.</figcaption></figure> What I wasn’t expecting, though, was how unimpressive and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyouhbgAiCA">strangely flat</a> it seems compared to Harrison’s recording. Dylan’s run-together vocal lines were backed by oddly jaunty and accented side-stick drumming (with the snare struck on the second beat but then a quaver before the fourth instead of on the fourth itself) and punctuated with glockenspiel. It all adds up to a slightly confused and messy arrangement, which takes attention away from the sincerity of the lyrics. <h2>5. If Not For You by Olivia Newton John</h2> When Olivia Newton-John issued her own cover of If Not For You in 1971, she wisely opted for the <a href="https://americansongwriter.com/how-bob-dylan-and-george-harrison-helped-olivia-newton-john-land-her-first-hit/">same arrangement</a> as Harrison’s, thankfully, minus Phil Spector’s muddy over-production – and scored an international hit with it in the process. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aJvwcpkBN3A?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>If Not For You performed by Olivia Newton John.</figcaption></figure> To my mind If Not For You remains one of Dylan’s most simplistic, beautiful songs – so long as he’s not singing it. <h2>6. Ballad of Hollis Brown by David Lynch</h2> Appearing on The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964), Dylan presents the five-minute <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8xkxy3tXTA">Ballad of Hollis Brown</a> as its title suggests, as a <a href="https://pressbooks.pub/shawangunktest/chapter/pounding-in-your-brain-form-in-dylans-ballad-of-hollis-brown/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CHollis%20Brown%E2%80%9D%20is%20most%20assuredly,that%20plays%20is%20Dylan%27s%20guitar.">traditional ballad in both form and theme</a>. His voice is backed by a lone acoustic guitar, minus even his ever-present harmonica. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AXnqohIm9g4?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>The Ballad of Hollis Brown by David Lynch.</figcaption></figure> Nearly half a century later, director David Lynch took time out from his day job to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AXnqohIm9g4">reimagine the song</a> as drum-heavy claustrophobia, twisting the original until it would have been unrecognisable if not for its title and lyrics. Dylan diehards may want to give this one a miss, but for those of us who enjoyed the music from the Roadhouse in Twin Peaks series three, this is a winner.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/246909/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/glenn-fosbraey-424079">Glenn Fosbraey</a>, Associate Dean of Humanities and Social Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-winchester-743">University of Winchester</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-covers-of-bob-dylan-songs-that-were-better-than-the-originals-246909">original article</a>. </div>

Music

Women spend more of their money on health care than men. And no, it’s not just about 'women’s issues'

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mike-armour-391382">Mike Armour</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/amelia-mardon-1505419">Amelia Mardon</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/danielle-howe-1492317">Danielle Howe</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hannah-adler-1533549">Hannah Adler</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-oshea-457947">Michelle O'Shea</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Medicare, Australia’s <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/medicare?language=und">universal health insurance scheme</a>, guarantees all Australians access to a wide range of health and hospital services at low or no cost. Although access to the scheme is universal across Australia (regardless of geographic location or socioeconomic status), one analysis suggests <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/healthcare-out-of-pocket-costs-an-agenda-for-international-womens-day/">women often spend more</a> out-of-pocket on health services than men. Other research has found men and women spend similar amounts on health care overall, or even that men spend <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/ah/pdf/AH18191">a little more</a>. However, it’s clear women spend a <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/ah/pdf/AH18191">greater proportion of their overall expenditure</a> on health care than men. They’re also more likely to <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/healthcare-out-of-pocket-costs-an-agenda-for-international-womens-day/">skip or delay medical care</a> due to the cost. So why do women often spend more of their money on health care, and how can we address this gap? <h2>Women have more chronic diseases, and access more services</h2> Women are <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/health-conditions-and-risks/health-conditions-prevalence/latest-release">more likely</a> to have a chronic health condition compared to men. They’re also more likely to report having multiple chronic conditions. While men generally die earlier, women are more likely to spend more of their life <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(24)00053-7/fulltext">living with disease</a>. There are also some conditions which affect women more than men, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-biological-differences-between-men-and-women-alter-immune-responses-and-affect-womens-health-208802">autoimmune conditions</a> (for example, multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis). Further, medical treatments can sometimes be <a href="https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/967984/CIU-Evidence-Brief-Gender-disparity-and-gender-equality-measures-in-health.pdf">less effective for women</a> due to a focus on men in medical research. These disparities are likely significant in understanding why women <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/healthcare-out-of-pocket-costs-an-agenda-for-international-womens-day/">access health services</a> more than men. For example, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/female-health/contents/access-health-care">88% of women</a> saw a GP in 2021–22 compared to <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/male-health/contents/access-health-care">79% of men</a>. As the number of GPs <a href="https://practices.hotdoc.com.au/blog/the-decline-of-bulk-billing-and-its-impact-on-general-practice-in-australia/#:%7E:text=The%20Medicare%20rebate%20for%20patients,to%20ensure%20their%20financial%20sustainability.">offering bulk billing</a> continues to decline, women are likely to need to pay more out-of-pocket, because they <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/32ea8a7f-50d5-4047-b70b-92dd63d387b8/aihw-phe239-240-factsheet.pdf.aspx">see a GP more often</a>. In 2020–21, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/female-health/contents/access-health-care">4.3% of women</a> said they had delayed seeing a GP due to cost at least once in the previous 12 months, compared to <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/male-health/contents/access-health-care">2.7% of men</a>. Data from the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/health-services/patient-experiences/2020-21">Australian Bureau of Statistics</a> has also shown women are more likely to delay or avoid seeing a mental health professional due to cost. Women are also more likely to need prescription medications, owing at least partly to their increased rates of chronic conditions. This adds further out-of-pocket costs. In 2020–21, <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/healthcare-out-of-pocket-costs-an-agenda-for-international-womens-day/">62% of women</a> received a prescription, compared to 37% of men. In the same period, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/female-health/contents/access-health-care">6.1% of women</a> delayed getting, or did not get prescribed medication because of the cost, compared to <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/male-health/contents/access-health-care">4.9% of men</a>. <h2>Reproductive health conditions</h2> While women are disproportionately affected by chronic health conditions throughout their lifespan, much of the disparity in health-care needs is concentrated between the first period and menopause. Almost <a href="https://www.jeanhailes.org.au/news/impact-of-pelvic-pain-vastly-underestimated">half of women</a> aged over 18 report having experienced chronic pelvic pain in the previous five years. This can be caused by conditions such as endometriosis, dysmenorrhoea (period pain), vulvodynia (vulva pain), and bladder pain. <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/news-media/media-releases/2023/2023-september/1-in-7-australian-women-aged-44-49-have-endometriosis">One in seven women</a> will have a diagnosis of endometriosis by age 49. Meanwhile, a quarter of all women aged 45–64 <a href="https://www.jeanhailes.org.au/research/womens-health-survey/menopause-in-australian-women">report symptoms</a> related to menopause that are significant enough to disrupt their daily life. All of these conditions can significantly reduce quality of life and increase the need to seek health care, sometimes including surgical treatment. Of course, conditions like endometriosis don’t just affect women. They also impact <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10501128/">trans men</a>, intersex people, and those who are gender diverse. <h2>Diagnosis can be costly</h2> Women often have to wait <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9518795/">longer to get a diagnosis</a> for chronic conditions. One <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.10.12.23296976v2.full-text">preprint study</a> found women wait an average of 134 days (around 4.5 months) longer than men for a diagnosis of a long-term chronic disease. Delays in diagnosis often result in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33004965/">needing to see more doctors</a>, again increasing the costs. Despite affecting about as many people as diabetes, it takes an average of between <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33050751/">six-and-a-half</a> to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33004965/">eight years</a> to diagnose endometriosis in Australia. This can be attributed to a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35928674/">number of factors</a> including society’s normalisation of women’s pain, poor knowledge about endometriosis among some health professionals, and the lack of affordable, non-invasive methods to accurately diagnose the condition. There have been recent improvements, with the introduction of <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-mark-butler-mp/media/historic-medicare-changes-for-women-battling-endometriosis#:%7E:text=In%20addition%20to%20the%20specialised,with%20complex%20histories%20and%20symptoms.">Medicare rebates for longer GP consultations</a> of up to 60 minutes. While this is not only for women, this extra time will be valuable in diagnosing and managing complex conditions. But gender inequality issues still exist in the Medicare Benefits Schedule. For example, both pelvic and breast ultrasound rebates are <a href="https://womensagenda.com.au/latest/the-gender-medicare-gap-is-seeing-women-pay-more-for-ultrasounds-and-other-health-services/">less than a scan for the scrotum</a>, and <a href="https://www.endozone.com.au/treatment/MRI">no rebate</a> exists for the MRI investigation of a woman’s pelvic pain. <h2>Management can be expensive too</h2> Many chronic conditions, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0167482X.2020.1825374?casa_token=yIlFZg_vJxsAAAAA%3ALwSa5DBMoDDWTiZsU1FC0MLLXkDd_eWBrGa2gr8b6NeRevp4ynlsTD_IMMYV_ek766j2P5C-B4Qy#d1e167">such as endometriosis</a>, which has a wide range of symptoms but no cure, can be very hard to manage. People with endometriosis often use allied health and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/imj.15494?casa_token=1sc4ZMGvDjIAAAAA%3AIrIY2B-RNVDDnUPMSsHI4axnBiTv-omNDHGlNSpsrm_qbMGY9iQ4htIyco5mj-Qhd7krsp7rfHtcbQ">complementary medicine</a> to help with symptoms. On average, women are more likely than men to use both <a href="https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2017/may/patterns-of-complementary-and-alternative-medi-2">complementary therapies</a> and <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/primary-health-care/general-practice-allied-health-primary-care">allied health</a>. While women with chronic conditions can access a <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/chronic-disease-management-plan?context=20">chronic disease management plan</a>, which provides Medicare-subsidised visits to a range of allied health services (for example, physiotherapist, psychologist, dietitian), this plan only subsidises five sessions per calendar year. And the reimbursement is <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9346321/">usually around 50% or less</a>, so there are still significant out-of-pocket costs. In the case of chronic pelvic pain, the cost of accessing allied or complementary health services has been found to average <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12905-022-01618-z">A$480.32 across a two-month period</a> (across both those who have a chronic disease management plan and those who don’t). <h2>More spending, less saving</h2> Womens’ health-care needs can also perpetuate financial strain beyond direct health-care costs. For example, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31600241">women with endometriosis</a> and chronic pelvic pain are often caught in a cycle of needing time off from work to attend medical appointments. Our <a href="https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-5480104/v1">preliminary research</a> has shown these repeated requests, combined with the common dismissal of symptoms associated with pelvic pain, means women sometimes face discrimination at work. This can lead to lack of career progression, underemployment, and premature retirement. Similarly, with <a href="https://www.superannuation.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/ASFAResearch_ImpactofMenopauseOnRetirement_080324.pdf">160,000 women</a> entering menopause each year in Australia (and this number expected to increase with population growth), the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Menopause/Report/Chapter_3_-_Impact_on_work_and_the_economic_consequences_of_menopause#:%7E:text=3.1This%20chapter%20explores%20the,on%20partners%20or%20family%20members.">financial impacts</a> are substantial. As many as <a href="https://www.superannuation.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/ASFAResearch_ImpactofMenopauseOnRetirement_080324.pdf">one in four women</a> may either shift to part-time work, take time out of the workforce, or retire early due to menopause, therefore earning less and paying less into their super. <h2>How can we close this gap?</h2> Even though women are more prone to chronic conditions, until relatively recently, much of medical research has been <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8812498/">done on men</a>. We’re only now beginning to realise important differences in how men and women experience certain conditions (such as <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-neuro-092820-105941">chronic pain</a>). Investing in women’s health research will be important to improve treatments so women are less burdened by chronic conditions. In the 2024–25 federal budget, the government committed $160 million towards <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-ged-kearney-mp/media/reforming-the-health-system-to-improve-sexual-and-reproductive-care">a women’s health package</a> to tackle gender bias in the health system (including cost disparities), upskill medical professionals, and improve sexual and reproductive care. While this reform is welcome, continued, long-term investment into women’s health is crucial.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/243797/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mike-armour-391382">Mike Armour</a>, Associate Professor at NICM Health Research Institute, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/amelia-mardon-1505419">Amelia Mardon</a>, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Reproductive Health, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/danielle-howe-1492317">Danielle Howe</a>, PhD Candidate, NICM Health Research Institute, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hannah-adler-1533549">Hannah Adler</a>, PhD Candidate, Health Communication and Health Sociology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-oshea-457947">Michelle O'Shea</a>, Senior Lecturer, School of Business, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/women-spend-more-of-their-money-on-health-care-than-men-and-no-its-not-just-about-womens-issues-243797">original article</a>. </div>

Caring

How much do you need to retire? It’s probably a lot less than you think

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/brendan-coates-154644">Brendan Coates</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joey-moloney-1334959">Joey Moloney</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> How much do you need to save for a comfortable retirement? It’s a big question, and you’ll often hear <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=australians+not+saving+enough+for+retirement&oq=australians+not+saving+enough+for+retirement&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyBggAEEUYOdIBCDM4MjRqMGo3qAIAsAIA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">dire warnings</a> you don’t have enough. But for most Australians, it’s a lot less than you might think. <h2>You spend less in retirement</h2> Australians tend to overestimate how much they need in retirement. Retirees don’t have work-related expenses and have more time to do things for themselves. And retirees, especially pensioners, benefit from discounts on council rates, electricity, medicines, and other benefits worth thousands of dollars a year. While housing <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/the-great-australian-nightmare/">is becoming less affordable</a>, most retirees own their own home and have paid it off by the time they retire. Australians who own their home spend an average of 20–25% of their income on housing while working, largely to pay the mortgage. But that falls to just 5% among retiree homeowners, because they are just left with smaller things such as rates and insurance. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631962/original/file-20241114-15-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Notes: Housing costs include mortgage interest and principal repayments and general rates for homeowners, and rental payments for renters. Does not include imputed rent.:" /></a><figcaption>Notes: Housing costs include mortgage interest and principal repayments and general rates for homeowners, and rental payments for renters. Does not include imputed rent. Grattan analysis of ABS (2022) Survey of Income and Housing.</figcaption></figure> And whatever the income you need at the start of your retirement, it typically falls as you age. Retirees tend to spend 15–20% less at age 90 <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-should-worry-less-about-retirement-and-leave-super-at-9-5-106237">than they do at age 70</a>, after adjusting for inflation, as their health deteriorates and their discretionary spending falls. Most of their health and aged-care costs <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/money-in-retirement/">are covered by government</a>. <h2>So how much superannuation do you need?</h2> Consumer group Super Consumers Australia has crunched the numbers on retiree spending and presents three robust “<a href="https://superconsumers.com.au/journalism/how-much-do-you-need-to-save-for-your-retirement/">budget standards</a>”: <ul> <li>a “low” standard (that is, enough for a person who wants to spend more than what 30% of retirees do)</li> <li>a “medium” standard (spending more than 50% of retirees do), and</li> <li>a “high” standard (more than 70%).</li> </ul> <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/631963/original/file-20241114-19-9h1dzt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /></a><figcaption>How much super do you need? Super Consumers Australia (2023) Retirement Savings Targets</figcaption></figure> Crucially, these estimates account for the significant role of the <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/how-much-age-pension-you-can-get?context=22526">Age Pension</a> in the retirement income of many Australians. The <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/how-much-age-pension-you-can-get?context=22526">maximum Age Pension</a> is now A$30,000 a year for singles, and $45,000 a year for couples. To meet Super Consumers Australia’s “medium” retirement standard, a single homeowner needs to have saved only $279,000 in super by age 65 to be able to spend $41,000 a year. A couple needs only $371,000 in super between them to spend $60,000 a year. To meet their “low” standard – which still enables you to spend more than 30% of retirees – single Australians need $76,000 in super at retirement, and couples $95,000 (while also qualifying for a full Age Pension of $30,000 a year). That’s provided that you own your own home (more on that later). <h2>Ignore the super lobby’s estimates</h2> Australians should ignore <a href="https://www.superannuation.asn.au/resources/retirement-standard/">the retirement standards</a> produced by super lobby group the Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia. Their “<a href="https://www.superannuation.asn.au/resources/retirement-standard/">comfortable</a>” standard assumes retirees need an annual income of $52,085 as a single, and $73,337 as a couple. This would require a super balance of $595,000 for a single person, and $690,000 for a couple. But this is a standard of living most Australians don’t have before retirement. It is higher than what 80% of single working Australians, and 70% of couples, <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/the-reassuring-truth-about-retirement-incomes/">spend today</a>. For most Australians, saving enough to meet the super lobby’s “comfortable” standard in retirement can only come by being uncomfortable during their working life. <h2>Most Australians are on track for a comfortable retirement</h2> The good news is most Australians are on track. The federal government’s <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-02/p2020-100554-udcomplete-report.pdf">2020 Retirement Income Review</a> concludes most future Australian retirees can expect an adequate retirement, replacing a more-than-reasonable share of their pre-retirement earnings – more than the 65–75% benchmark nominated by the review. Even most Australians who work part-time or have broken work histories will hit this benchmark. Most retirees today feel more comfortable financially than younger Australians. And typically, they have enough money to sustain the same, or a higher, living standard in retirement than they had when working. <h2>Rising mortgage debt doesn’t change this story</h2> More Australians are retiring with mortgage debt – about 13% of over-65s had a mortgage in 2019–20, <a href="https://www.ahuri.edu.au/sites/default/files/migration/documents/AHURI_RAP_Issue_176_Housing-equity-withdrawal-in-Australia.pdf">up from 4% in 2002–03</a>. But the government’s <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-02/p2020-100554-udcomplete-report.pdf">retirement income review</a> found most retirees who used $100,000 of their super to pay off the mortgage when they retire would still have an adequate retirement income. This is, in part, because many would qualify for more Age Pension after using a big chunk of super to pay off the mortgage. And retirees can get a loan via the government’s <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/home-equity-access-scheme">Home Equity Access Scheme</a> to draw equity out of their home up to a maximum value of 150% of the Age Pension, or $45,000 a year, irrespective of how much Age Pension you are eligible for. The outstanding debt accrues with interest, which the government recovers when the property is sold, or from the borrower’s estate when they die, reducing the size of the inheritance that goes to the kids. <h2>But what about renters?</h2> One group of Australians is not on track for a comfortable retirement: those who don’t own a home and must keep paying rent in retirement. Nearly half of retired renters <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/repairing-australias-retirement-income-system/">live in poverty today</a>. Most Australians approaching retirement own their own homes today, but fewer will do so in future. Among the poorest 40% of 45–54-year-olds, just 53% own their home today, <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/the-great-australian-nightmare/">down from 71% four decades ago</a>. But a single retiree renting a unit for $330 a week – cheaper than 80% of the one-bedroom units across all capital cities – would need an extra $200,000 in super, in addition to Commonwealth Rent Assistance (according to the government’s <a href="https://moneysmart.gov.au/retirement-income/retirement-planner">Money Smart Retirement Planner</a>). This is why raising Commonwealth Rent Assistance to help renting retirees keep a roof over their heads should be an urgent priority for the federal government. Australians have been told for decades that they’re not saving enough for retirement. But the vast majority of retirees today and in future are likely to be financially comfortable.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/243596/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/brendan-coates-154644">Brendan Coates</a>, Program Director, Economic Policy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joey-moloney-1334959">Joey Moloney</a>, Deputy Program Director, Housing and Economic Security, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-do-you-need-to-retire-its-probably-a-lot-less-than-you-think-243596">original article</a>. </div>

Retirement Income

Why sending a belated gift is not as bad as you probably think − and late is better than never

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/rebecca-walker-reczek-232584">Rebecca Walker Reczek</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/cory-haltman-2240693">Cory Haltman</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/grant-donnelly-1250966">Grant Donnelly</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a> If finding the right present and making sure the recipient gets it on time leaves you feeling anxious, you’re not alone. More than half of Americans say <a href="https://www.lendingtree.com/credit-cards/study/holiday-gift-stressors/">that gift-giving stresses them out</a>. Concerns about on-time delivery are so common that people share holiday <a href="https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/living/story/christmas-shipping-deadlines-2024-74159960">deadlines for each shipping service</a>. And in the event that you can’t meet these deadlines, there are now handy <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/home/package-delays-christmas-gifts-etiquette/2020/12/23/578a369e-43a5-11eb-b0e4-0f182923a025_story.html">etiquette guides</a> offering advice for how to inform the recipient. If you’ve sent late gifts thanks to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/12/15/postal-service-holiday-packages-delays/">shipping delays</a>, <a href="https://nymag.com/strategist/article/top-gifts-to-buy-before-they-sell-out-2022.html">depleted stocks</a> or even good old-fashioned <a href="https://wwd.com/feature/last-minute-holiday-shopping-survey-reveal-curious-consumer-trends-1234684998/">procrastination</a>, our new research may offer some welcome news. In a series of studies that will soon be published in the Journal of Consumer Psychology, we found that people overestimate the negative consequences of sending a late gift. <h2>Trying to follow norms</h2> Why do people tend to overestimate these consequences? Our findings indicate that when people give presents, they pay more attention <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1318">to norms about gifting</a> than the recipients do. For example, other researchers have found that people tend to be reluctant to give <a href="https://doi.org/10.1348/014466604X23428">used products as presents</a> because there’s a norm that gifts should be new. In reality, though, many people are often open to receiving used stuff. We found that this mismatch also applies to beliefs about the importance of timing. Many people worry that a late gift will signal that they don’t care about the recipient. They then fear their relationship will suffer. In reality, though, these fears are largely unfounded. Gift recipients are much less worried about when the gift arrives. Unfortunately, aside from causing unnecessary worry, being overly sensitive about giving a late present can also influence the gift you choose to buy. <h2>Compensating for lateness</h2> To test how lateness concerns affect gift choice, we conducted an online study before Mother’s Day in 2021. We had 201 adults participate in a raffle. They could choose to send their mother either a cheaper gift basket that would arrive in time for the occasion or a more expensive one that would arrive late. Concerns about lateness led nearly 70% of the participants to choose the less expensive and more prompt option. In another study, we conducted the same kind of raffle for Father’s Day and got similar results. Aside from finding that people will choose inferior items to ensure speedier delivery, we also found that givers may feel that they can compensate for lateness with effort. In another online study of 805 adults, we discovered that participants were less likely to expect a late delivery to damage a relationship if they signaled their care for the recipient in a different way. For example, they believed that putting an item together by hand, versus purchasing it preassembled, could compensate for a present being belated. <h2>Better late than never?</h2> If sending something late isn’t as bad as expected, you may wonder whether it’s OK to simply not send anything at all. We’d caution against going that route. In another online study of 903 participants, we found that recipients believed that not receiving anything at all was more likely to harm a relationship than receiving something as much as two months late. That is, late is better than never as far as those receiving gifts are concerned. You may want to keep that in mind, even if that new <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/dec/19/game-over-why-santa-may-struggle-to-bring-you-that-ps5-xbox-or-ipad">gaming console</a>, <a href="https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/baby-yoda-animatronic-toy-sold-out-hasbro-1203510368/">action figure</a> or <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2019/12/24/oculus-quest-headsets-sold-out-into-february/2742443001/">virtual reality headset</a> is sold out this holiday season. It could still be a welcome surprise if it arrives in January or February.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/244012/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/rebecca-walker-reczek-232584">Rebecca Walker Reczek</a>, Professor of Marketing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/cory-haltman-2240693">Cory Haltman</a>, Ph.D. Candidate in Marketing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/grant-donnelly-1250966">Grant Donnelly</a>, Assistant Professor of Marketing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-ohio-state-university-759">The Ohio State University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-sending-a-belated-gift-is-not-as-bad-as-you-probably-think-and-late-is-better-than-never-244012">original article</a>. </div>

Family & Pets

Booking a summer holiday deal? Beware ‘drip pricing’ and other tactics to make you pay more than you planned

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jeannie-marie-paterson-6367">Jeannie Marie Paterson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Have you ever spotted what looked like a great deal on a website, added it to your “basket” and proceeded to checkout – only to find extra fees added on at the last minute? It’s frustratingly common when making airline, hotel and many other kinds of bookings to see an advertised price get ratcheted up at checkout with additional fees – perhaps “shipping insurance”, “resort fees” or just “taxes”. The practice is known as “<a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/pricing/price-displays">drip pricing</a>” and it can <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/WH-Junk-Fees-Guide-for-States.pdf">distort</a> consumer decision-making and affect competition. Nonetheless, there is no specific ban on this conduct in Australia. Some companies have, however, effectively been prosecuted for it under the Australian Consumer Law, which contains some strict rules about misleading consumers through advertising. Many of us have already begun booking flights, hotels and more as we head into the summer holiday season. Here’s what the law says about companies changing prices in the lead-up to checkout, and how you can protect yourself as a consumer. <h2>What’s wrong with drip pricing?</h2> The tactic that underpins drip pricing is to draw a customer in with an attractive “headline” price but then add in other fees as the customer approaches the checkout. It’s reasonable to ask whether there’s anything wrong with this practice: after all, the customer still sees the final price at checkout. Why might that be seen as misleading conduct under Australian Consumer Law? The reasons lie in views about consumer buying behaviour and the nature of the statutory prohibition. Typically, the closer a consumer gets to a sale, the less likely they are to pull out or even fully notice any additional fees. They may then end up paying more than they intended and also have lost the opportunity to deal with other suppliers of the same product at a better price. In the relevant section of Australian Consumer Law, there’s no requirement of an intention to mislead. It’s also not necessarily relevant that the true pricing situation is eventually revealed to the consumer or that it’s in the “fine print”. Thus, in the eyes of the law, it can be enough that consumers were enticed by an attractive headline price. <h2>Price surprises</h2> This legal position is well illustrated by a <a href="https://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/2013/54.html">case</a> settled by the High Court in 2013, after the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) took on telecom provider TPG Internet in <a href="https://www.mondaq.com/australia/advertising-marketing-branding/282802/advertising-and-the-acl-fine-print-couldnt-save-tpg-internet-in-the-high-court">2010</a>, alleging misleading conduct. In this case, TPG had been advertising broadband internet services for $29.99 per month. But on reading the fine print, you’d have discovered this deal was only available with a landline service costing an additional $30 per month. The case moved up through Australia’s court system, but ultimately, the High Court majority held that the telco had engaged in misleading conduct. The High Court recognised that the very point of advertising is to draw consumers into “the marketing web”. It is therefore not enough to disclose the true (higher) price only at the point the transaction is concluded. TPG was fined $2 million in this case. Since then, the maximum penalties have increased, now the higher of: <ul> <li>$50 million</li> <li>three times the value obtained from the contravention, or (if the benefit can not be determined)</li> <li>30% of the business’s adjusted turnover during the breach period.</li> </ul> <h2>Dynamic pricing</h2> Other pricing complaints have been in the news recently, including concerns about point-of-sale dynamic pricing. Basically, this means using an algorithm that adjusts ticket prices in response to demand, as consumers wait in a virtual purchasing queue. Recent media reporting has centred on <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-10-14/ticketmaster-live-nation-dynamic-pricing-tickets-class-action/104469646">concerns</a> about the use of point-of-sale dynamic pricing in the events ticketing industry. A form of dynamic pricing is used by hotels and airlines. They increase prices seasonally and according to demand. But these “dynamic” prices are clearly visible to consumers as they start looking for a deal. Some bodies even publish helpful tables of likely prices at different times. The kind of dynamic pricing that happens at the very point consumers are waiting to buy is very different and arguably creates an “unfair surprise”. Whether these kinds of practices also fall within the category of misleading conduct remains to be seen. But it is arguable that consumers could reasonably expect the real-time movement of prices to be disclosed upfront. Earlier this year, the government announced <a href="https://theconversation.com/albanese-government-promises-to-ban-dodgy-trading-practices-234142">plans</a> to address both drip pricing and dynamic pricing as part of a broader ban on unfair trading practices. <h2>What can consumers do?</h2> While all this law reform and litigation is playing out, here are some things you can do to avoid pricing shock. 1. Slow down. One of the strategies that online markets often rely on is “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/oct/12/accc-suing-coles-woolworths-pricing-strategies-allegations">scarcity signalling</a>” – those clocks or numbers you see counting down as you move through a website. The very purpose of these is to make a consumer rush – which can mean failing to notice those additional fees that may make the buy not a good deal. 2. Take screen shots as you progress. Remember what it is you thought you were getting. Doing this also provides a basis for lodging a complaint if the headline and actual price don’t match up. 3. Check. Take a close look at the final bill before pressing pay. 4. Report. Tell your local Fair Trading Office or the ACCC if the advertised deal and the final price don’t meet up. A recent action taken by the ACCC against <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/sep/23/accc-suing-coles-woolworths-discounts-misleading">Woolworths and Coles</a> alleging “illusory” discounts was launched because of consumer tip-offs.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/244825/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jeannie-marie-paterson-6367">Jeannie Marie Paterson</a>, Professor of Law, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/booking-a-summer-holiday-deal-beware-drip-pricing-and-other-tactics-to-make-you-pay-more-than-you-planned-244825">original article</a>. </div>

Travel Trouble

Australians are reading less than other countries, a new report shows. Why?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katya-johanson-425719">Katya Johanson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720">Edith Cowan University</a> Recent international research shows Australians are buying and reading fewer books than people in many other countries. But why? A <a href="https://risebookselling.eu/consumer-behaviour">report</a> by the European and International Book Federation found that only 64% of Australians bought a book in the past year, compared to an average 72% of people across 19 countries. Similarly, 80% of Australians read a book in the past year, slightly below the international average of 85%. These differences are slim, but as book buyers and readers, we are among the lowest in the sample, alongside Aotearoa New Zealand, Finland, Latvia and the United States. The number of people who had read a book in the past year in Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom and Ireland all came in at over 90%. Local research also suggests reading rates in Australia are falling. Back in 2017, a Macquarie University study found 92% of us read books at least once in the previous year. By 2021, in the <a href="https://australiareads.org.au/research/the-national-reading-survey/">Australia Reads national survey</a> that figure had dropped to 75%. What’s behind these numbers? Price might be less of a factor than we often assume – and surprisingly, Australia’s dependence on cars could play a role. International examples showing how other countries protect and value their book cultures – from government policies to counter the strength of Amazon to public holidays for poets – suggest measures to actively boost our own could help. <h2>The price myth</h2> There’s a general perception that books cost too much in Australia. But they’re not necessarily more expensive here than elsewhere. Competition from online retailers like Amazon and increases in production costs globally <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/industry/book-publishing/171/">have levelled prices internationally</a>. In fact, Australians often pay similar or less for books than readers in Canada, New Zealand and the US. Tim Winton’s new novel, <a href="https://theconversation.com/tim-winton-goes-cli-fi-his-dystopian-novel-juice-breaks-new-ground-to-face-the-climate-emergency-238769">Juice</a>, for example, has an Australian recommended retail price of A$49.99. It’s almost exactly the same price in Aotearoa New Zealand (A$49.81) and costs more in Canada (A$54.59). In the US, Juice is A$44.02, and in the UK, it’s A$43.07. While UK book prices are lower, this is mainly because books there don’t attract sales tax. The UK <a href="https://www.accountingfirms.co.uk/blog/are-books-vat-exempt/#:%7E:text=In%20the%20UK%2C%20books%20are,to%20most%20goods%20and%20services">made books exempt</a> from its value-added tax (VAT) applied to most goods and services – a deliberate decision to make reading more affordable. Pauline MacLeod, the children’s and young adult literature specialist at Brisbane’s Riverbend Books, told me children’s publishers are “trying hard to keep local books priced between $22.99 and $25.99”. Still, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-workers-true-cost-of-living-has-climbed-far-faster-than-weve-been-told-221590">in the current cost of living squeeze</a> books are a discretionary spend some cannot afford. <h2>Public transport is good for reading</h2> Interestingly, countries where <a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/8282/rail-passenger-transport-in-europe/#statisticChapter">more people use public transport</a> – like the UK, France, Germany and Spain – tend to have higher reading rates. It’s easier to read a book on a train than in a car, and these countries often have bookshops in train stations, creating a culture of reading while commuting. In contrast, car-dependent countries like Australia, the US and Aotearoa New Zealand show lower reading rates. Our reliance on cars might explain why audiobooks are more popular in Australia than in many other countries. <h2>A holiday for a poet</h2> In Ireland, where 91% of people have read a book in the past 12 months, there is a strong cultural history of storytelling. Reading is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/article/2024/aug/20/we-all-read-like-hell-how-ireland-became-the-worlds-literary-powerhouse">supported by</a> an arts council providing grants and bursaries, and a healthy ecosystem of literary festivals and magazines, public libraries and bookshops. Australia has many of these things, but Ireland also significantly supports writers, with a tax exemption on artists’ income up to €50,000 (approximately A$81,500) and a basic-income pilot scheme granting 2,000 artists €325 (approximately A$530) a week. In France, where the government <a href="https://www.culture.gouv.fr/en/regions/drac-grand-est/services/idc/reading-book/Support-for-the-book-economy">actively protects its reading culture</a>, 88% of people have read a book in the past 12 months. In 2022, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/23/france-minimum-book-delivery-fee-amazon">France introduced a law</a> to make French bookshops more competitive with online retailers like Amazon which often offer free delivery of books. By setting a minimum delivery fee for all online book orders of less than €35 (around A$57), the government aims to level the playing field for local booksellers. Perhaps unsurprisingly, only 5% of French people buy all their books online (as opposed to 12% in Australia). Australia has public holidays dedicated to sports, like the Melbourne Cup and the AFL Grand Final (both in Victoria). In Portugal, a national holiday, Portugal Day, commemorates the death of poet <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Luis-de-Camoes">Luís de Camões</a>, considered Portugal’s greatest. While 85% of Portuguese people have read a book in the past 12 months (exactly the international average), they consider reading as one of their hobbies (37%) and have bought a book in the past year (76%) at rates above the international average. Interestingly, just 32% of Australians said they consider reading a hobby, compared to 44% in Spain and 42% in the UK. Families, the education system and the media are also all key to inculcating this culture of reading, as is a strong local publishing industry. <h2>The way forward</h2> Local booksellers report declining reading rates in Australia, too. Robbie Egan, CEO of Australia’s peak bookselling industry body, BookPeople, told me: “The competition for eyeballs is real and it is fierce, and consumer discretionary dollars are scarce”. Industry leaders like Egan suggest we need a national campaign to promote the benefit of reading. We know from local research that <a href="https://www.bookpeople.org.au/images/BookPeople_Papers_Imagination.pdf">Australians value books and storytelling</a>. With increasing competition from other forms of entertainment and tighter household budgets, encouraging a stronger reading culture may be more important than ever.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/243272/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katya-johanson-425719">Katya Johanson</a>, Professor of Publishing and Audience Studies, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720">Edith Cowan University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australians-are-reading-less-than-other-countries-a-new-report-shows-why-243272">original article</a>. </div>

Books

"Happy wives, happy social lives?" Men are more emotionally disconnected than women – what can be done about it?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/roger-patulny-94836">Roger Patulny</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/hong-kong-baptist-university-2801">Hong Kong Baptist University</a> Many of us are worried about loneliness and isolation, and both <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-be-fooled-loneliness-affects-men-too-15545">decade-old</a> and <a href="https://www.relationshipsnsw.org.au/blog/how-many-australians-are-lonely/">recent data</a> suggest they impact men more than women. Loneliness predicts health outcomes including <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691614568352">early mortality</a>, greater <a href="https://hqlo.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12955-022-01946-6">psychological distress</a>, and more <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-022-00355-9">cardiovascular, metabolic and neurological problems</a>. New research also links loneliness to <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-024-18770-w">more intolerant attitudes towards women</a>. These findings raise concerns over the causes and impacts of men’s loneliness and isolation. <h2>A deep dive into loneliness</h2> I recently analysed more than 50 indicators from a decade of data collected by the <a href="https://www.acspri.org.au/aussa">Australian Social Attitudes Survey</a>, from 2011–12, 2015–16, 2017–18, and 2022–23. My statistical models produced results for (self-identified) men and women, after controlling for the impacts of age, employment and partner status. I confirmed that Australian men are more likely to be socially and emotionally disconnected than women. I also found some reasons why this might be the case. I found men appear to focus their emotional energies primarily on their nuclear families and partners. Consequently, they over-rely on their female partners for intimate support and develop more distant, limited and transactional relationships with other people – and other men. <h2>Men are more emotionally disconnected</h2> The data show men continue to lack emotional support on a range of indicators. This puts them at greater risk of health impacts and potentially encourages more toxic attitudes towards women. A significantly greater proportion of men than women reported: <ul> <li>receiving no support from their closest friend</li> <li>receiving fun/practical advice over emotional support from close friends</li> <li>having less contact with a close friend</li> <li>not having anyone for emotional support</li> <li>not feeling “very close” to their closest friend</li> <li>not feeling “love” as their most commonly experienced emotion in the last week.</li> </ul> <h2>Men have more distant, transactional relationships</h2> Why are men in this situation? Masculinity roles are clearly influential. Traditional masculinity encourages men to appear capable, controlled and independent, avoid displays of “vulnerable” emotions or male-to-male affection (like hugging, touch or crying), and embrace the hetero-normative ideal of male provision and leadership. Such norms have been found to constrain male intimacy <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37531906/">by disallowing vulnerability</a>. My data show men tend to develop looser, transactional ties with more distant people. This may reduce the quality of the connection and its potential to reduce loneliness. I have found men are more likely than women to: <ul> <li>think it is OK to befriend someone just because they’ll make a “useful” contact</li> <li>feel obligated to repay favours immediately (foregoing longer-term connections)</li> <li>be kind to others because they “value doing the right thing”, rather than because they empathically connect with or care about the person</li> <li>give and receive kindness from strangers (rather than more familiar people)</li> <li>seek help with household jobs from more distant family or friends</li> <li>seek practical support (money, advice) from private and commercial sources (rather than friends or family)</li> <li>not seek help from family or friends for emotional, sickness or care issues.</li> </ul> This means many men retain an individualist masculine desire to remain emotionally aloof. <hr /> <iframe id="TBJfz" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" style="border: 0;" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/TBJfz/" width="100%" height="400px" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe> <hr /> <h2>Appearing in control but becoming dependent?</h2> So where do men turn for intimate, emotional connection? Most often, their families. Prior studies show partnered men are <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-024-18770-w">less lonely than single men</a>. My data show men revere the nuclear family institution and the core supportive role of women and female partners. Men are more likely than women to: <ul> <li>believe having children increases their social standing</li> <li>believe family is more important than friends</li> <li>rely on family over friends for support</li> <li>have mixed-gender friendships (in contrast to womens’ predominately female friendships)</li> <li>see their (predominantly female) partner as their closest friend</li> <li>emotionally support their (predominantly female) partner ahead of supporting others.</li> </ul> However, the masculine desire to be a “good nuclear family man” <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37531906/">can both support and impede</a> men’s social connection. Partnered men might feel less lonely but that doesn’t mean they give or gain sufficient emotional support from their nuclear families. My data show men are less likely than women to: <ul> <li>plan or organise social and family activities</li> <li>have at least weekly contact with non-nuclear family or friends</li> <li>emotionally support their friends, family or children ahead of their partners</li> <li>have their partner support them ahead of others (women were more likely to support their children first).</li> </ul> This raises several issues. If men cling to the notion that their primary role is to provide for and support their (female) partner – while she in turn emotionally supports everyone else – they risk becoming personally isolated through diminished networks and outmoded expectations. In this context, men who believe they should earn more than their partners <a href="https://theconversation.com/loneliness-in-the-workplace-is-greatest-among-men-with-traditional-views-about-being-the-breadwinner-230535">are lonelier</a> than other men. It also risks pushing the burden of maintaining social and emotional connections onto <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/features/a27259689/toxic-masculinity-male-friendships-emotional-labor-men-rely-on-women/">women and partners</a>, and men becoming socially and emotionally dependent on them. And it can “bake in” hetero-normative family-to-family interactions (organised by female partners) as the most “legitimate” form of socialising for men. This can be highly exclusionary for LGBTQIA+ people, along with single men and single fathers, who register among <a href="https://www.relationships.org.au/relationship-indicators/">the highest rates of loneliness in Australia</a>. <hr /> <iframe id="qCmHw" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" style="border: 0;" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/qCmHw/" width="100%" height="400px" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe> <hr /> <h2>How can men become more emotionally connected?</h2> Feelings shouldn’t be seen as just a <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/features/a27259689/toxic-masculinity-male-friendships-emotional-labor-men-rely-on-women/">“female thing”</a>. Younger men’s more inclusive masculine attitudes can allow them to <a href="https://theconversation.com/he-is-always-there-to-listen-friendships-between-young-men-are-more-than-just-beers-and-banter-200301">subvert the “rules” of masculinity</a>, express emotion and embrace <a href="https://theconversation.com/he-is-always-there-to-listen-friendships-between-young-men-are-more-than-just-beers-and-banter-200301">“bromances”</a>. Men can also connect emotionally with other men through <a href="https://theconversation.com/he-is-always-there-to-listen-friendships-between-young-men-are-more-than-just-beers-and-banter-200301">jokes and humour</a> and participating in shared activities <a href="https://theconversation.com/lost-touch-with-friends-during-lockdown-heres-how-to-reconnect-and-let-go-of-toxic-ones-172853">that allow incidental communication</a>, like Men’s Sheds. The following initiatives may well help men broaden their intimate networks beyond the nuclear family. We could:<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/239194/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <ul> <li>help men into caring roles through more <a href="https://theconversation.com/loneliness-in-the-workplace-is-greatest-among-men-with-traditional-views-about-being-the-breadwinner-230535">family friendly employment and care-leave policies</a></li> <li>support initiatives such as <a href="https://meninmind.movember.com/">Movember Men in Mind</a> that encourage men to seek help, and improve their emotional expression and support skills</li> <li>encourage partnered, heterosexual men to broaden and diversify their intimate networks beyond the nuclear family bubble, and be more inclusive of single men, single fathers, and LGBTQIA+ people. <a href="https://thephn.com.au/news/the-mens-table-successful-mental-health-initiative-expanding-across-seven-new-regions">Men’s Table initiatives</a> could be of great value here</li> <li>encourage the development of more online <a href="https://theconversation.com/he-is-always-there-to-listen-friendships-between-young-men-are-more-than-just-beers-and-banter-200301">safe spaces</a> to form intimate bonds while avoiding toxic online masculine spaces.</li> </ul> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/roger-patulny-94836">Roger Patulny</a>, Professor, Academy of Geography, Sociology and International Studies, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/hong-kong-baptist-university-2801">Hong Kong Baptist University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/happy-wives-happy-social-lives-men-are-more-emotionally-disconnected-than-women-what-can-be-done-about-it-239194">original article</a>. </div>

Mind

Lost touch with someone? Reach out – your friend will likely appreciate it more than you think

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/peggy-liu-818769">Peggy Liu</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-pittsburgh-854">University of Pittsburgh</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lauren-min-1354136">Lauren Min</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-kansas-1588">University of Kansas</a> <h2>The big idea</h2> The next time you wonder whether to reach out to a friend, family member, classmate or other person who’s been out of touch for a long time, go ahead and do it. According to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000402">our just-published research</a>, it’s likely they’ll appreciate it more than you think. In a series of 13 experiments involving over 5,900 participants, we – along with colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0Stzf1cAAAAJ&hl=en">SoYon Rim</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TZQefJAAAAAJ&hl=en">Kate Min</a> – wanted to investigate whether people accurately predict <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000402">how much their social contacts appreciate being reached out to</a>. In one experiment we conducted, college students wrote a note “to check in and say hello” to a classmate they hadn’t interacted with in a while. Then we asked them how much they thought their classmate would appreciate receiving this note. Next, we delivered these notes to their classmates and asked the recipients how much they appreciated receiving them. We found that the students who received the notes were much more appreciative of the gesture than the students who wrote them had anticipated. Other experiments varied the scenario by involving older adults as participants rather than college students, switching the written message to a small gift – such as cookies or coffee – and comparing how much the sender underestimated the appreciation that an emotionally distant contact would feel compared with a close contact. Overall they yielded the same basic finding: People tended to underestimate how much others appreciated hearing from them. What drives this underestimation? Our results suggest that it’s related to how little the people reaching out factor in the surprise felt by those being contacted. When we asked recipients what they focused on when indicating how appreciative they felt, they reported paying a lot of attention to their positive feelings of surprise, which were linked to how appreciative they felt. Comparatively, potential senders did not report focusing much on recipients’ positive feelings of surprise. It also mattered whether the two parties were already in a close relationship. People’s underestimations were even greater when their contact was a distant acquaintance because these recipients were especially surprised at being contacted. <h2>Why it matters</h2> Many people can name at least one person with whom they would like to reconnect. Taking a new job, moving to a different city, becoming a parent, or the busyness of everyday life – these are just some of the life events and circumstances that can cause people to lose touch. Then, if the desire to reconnect arises on one side, doubts may arise about whether the other person may appreciate being contacted out of the blue. When people consider taking the initiative to reach out, especially after a prolonged period of no contact, they may worry about being rejected. This worry might keep them from reaching out in the first place. Our research lessens this challenge by showing that often, these gestures will be much more appreciated than one might expect. <h2>What other research is being done</h2> Our findings fit within a growing stream of research examining the tendency to underestimate others’ appreciation of various social exchanges. For example, other researchers have found that people underestimate how much <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000277">others appreciate receiving compliments</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618772506">expressions of gratitude</a>. Our work adds to this area by broadening the scope of the contexts in which people underestimate how much social exchanges are appreciated. Reaching out could but need not require giving compliments or expressing gratitude – the gesture can be as simple as checking in with someone to show that one is thinking about them.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185001/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/peggy-liu-818769">Peggy Liu</a>, Ben L. Fryrear Chair in Marketing and Associate Professor of Business Administration, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-pittsburgh-854">University of Pittsburgh</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lauren-min-1354136">Lauren Min</a>, Assistant Professor of Marketing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-kansas-1588">University of Kansas</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/lost-touch-with-someone-reach-out-your-friend-will-likely-appreciate-it-more-than-you-think-185001">original article</a>. </div>

Relationships

What’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? Less than you might think

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/bruce-watt-1486350">Bruce Watt</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarina-fritzon-402205">Katarina Fritzon</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Articles about badly behaved people and how to spot them are common. You don’t have to Google or scroll too much to find headlines such as <a href="https://psychologyeverywhere.com/articles/7-signs-your-boss-is-a-psychopath/">7 signs your boss is a psychopath</a> or <a href="https://www.elephantjournal.com/2022/08/how-to-avoid-the-sociopath-next-door-erica-leibrandt/">How to avoid the sociopath next door</a>. You’ll often see the terms psychopath and sociopath used somewhat interchangeably. That applies to perhaps the most famous badly behaved fictional character of all – Hannibal Lecter, the cannibal serial killer from <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0102926/">The Silence of the Lambs</a>. In the book on which the movie is based, Lecter is described as a “pure sociopath”. But in the movie, he’s described as a “pure psychopath”. Psychiatrists have diagnosed him with <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2002.56.1.100">something else</a> entirely. So what’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? As we’ll see, these terms have been used at different times in history, and relate to some overlapping concepts. <h2>What’s a psychopath?</h2> Psychopathy has been mentioned in the psychiatric literature <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">since the 1800s</a>. But the latest edition of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known colloquially as the DSM) <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">doesn’t list</a> it as a recognised clinical disorder. <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/about-dsm/history-of-the-dsm#section_5">Since the 1950s</a>, labels have changed and terms such as “sociopathic personality disturbance” have been replaced with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546673/">antisocial personality disorder</a>, which is what we have today. Someone with antisocial personality disorder has a persistent disregard for the rights of others. This includes breaking the law, repeated lying, impulsive behaviour, getting into fights, disregarding safety, irresponsible behaviours, and indifference to the consequences of their actions. To add to the confusion, the section in the DSM on antisocial personality disorder mentions psychopathy (and sociopathy) traits. In other words, according to the DSM the traits are part of antisocial personality disorder but are not mental disorders themselves. US psychiatrist <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-37736-001">Hervey Cleckley</a> provided the first formal description of psychopathy traits in his 1941 book <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/psychology/personality/psychopathy/1941-cleckley-maskofsanity.pdf">The Mask of Sanity</a>. He based his description on his clinical observations of nine male patients in a psychiatric hospital. He identified several key characteristics, including superficial charm, unreliability and a lack of remorse or shame. <a href="https://psych.ubc.ca/profile/robert-hare/">Canadian psychologist</a> Professor <a href="http://www.hare.org/">Robert Hare</a> refined these characteristics by emphasising interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics, in addition to the antisocial behaviours listed in the DSM. When we draw together all these strands of evidence, we can say a psychopath manipulates others, shows superficial charm, is grandiose and is persistently deceptive. Emotional traits include a lack of emotion and empathy, indifference to the suffering of others, and not accepting responsibility for how their behaviour impacts others. Finally, a psychopath is easily bored, sponges off others, lacks goals, and is persistently irresponsible in their actions. <h2>So how about a sociopath?</h2> The term sociopath first appeared <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">in the 1930s</a>, and was attributed to US psychologist George Partridge. He <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.85.6.1053?journalCode=ajp">emphasised</a> the societal consequences of behaviour that habitually violates the rights of others. Academics and clinicians often used the terms sociopath and psychopath interchangeably. But some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">preferred the term sociopath</a> because they said the public sometimes confused the word psychopath with psychosis. “Sociopathic personality disturbance” <a href="https://www.turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/dsm-1952.pdf">was the term</a> used in the first edition of the DSM in 1952. This aligned with the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/0306624X01453005">prevailing views</a> at the time that antisocial behaviours were largely the product of the social environment, and that behaviours were only judged as deviant if they broke social, legal, and/or cultural rules. Some of these early descriptions of sociopathy are more aligned with what we now call antisocial personality disorder. Others relate to emotional characteristics similar to Cleckley’s 1941 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26618655/">definition</a> of a psychopath. In short, different people had different ideas about sociopathy and, even today, sociopathy is less-well defined than psychopathy. So there is no single definition of sociopathy we can give you, even today. But in general, its antisocial behaviours can be similar to ones we see with psychopathy. Over the decades, the term sociopathy fell out of favour. From the late 60s, psychiatrists used the term antisocial personality disorder instead. <h2>Born or made?</h2> Both “sociopathy” (what we now call antisocial personality disorder) and psychopathy have been associated with a wide range of developmental, biological and psychological causes. For example, people with psychopathic traits have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/may/12/how-to-spot-a-murderers-brain">certain brain differences</a> especially <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-01001-014">in regions</a> associated with emotions, inhibition of behaviour and problem solving. They also appear to have differences associated with their <a href="https://www.psypost.org/psychopathic-women-exhibit-low-cardiac-defense-responses-study-finds/">nervous system</a>, including a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051123001345?via%3Dihub">reduced heart rate</a>. However, sociopathy and its antisocial behaviours are a product of someone’s social environment, and tends to <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/19-1415-FinalReport.pdf">run in families</a>. These behaviours has been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801766/#:%7E:text=Childhood%20abuse%20is%20a%20risk,and%20psychopathic%20traits%20remain%20unclear">associated with</a> physical abuse and parental conflict. <h2>What are the consequences?</h2> Despite their fictional portrayals – such as Hannibal Lecter in Silence of the Lambs or Villanelle in the TV series <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7016936/">Killing Eve</a> – <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/making-evil/201902/what-we-get-wrong-about-psychopaths#:%7E:text=Most%20psychopaths%20are%20not%20offenders,extreme%20violence%20or%20serial%20killing.">not all people</a> with psychopathy or sociopathy traits are serial killers or are physically violent. But psychopathy <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/">predicts</a> a wide range of harmful behaviours. In the criminal justice system, psychopathy is strongly linked with re-offending, particularly of a violent nature. In the general population, psychopathy is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160252709000028?casa_token=5lSd35qRO7oAAAAA:CTu-KkDXxsoYEPvpceItex9go1Fn_YlfBQSW9O9_MwNEX6NxlZ23GRcWnS5YYV_kAig24E4Ahdj7">associated with</a> drug dependence, homelessness, and other personality disorders. Some research even showed psychopathy predicted <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250605/">failure to follow</a> COVID restrictions. But sociopathy is less established as a key risk factor in identifying people at heightened risk of harm to others. And sociopathy is not a reliable indicator of future antisocial behaviour. <h2>In a nutshell</h2> Neither psychopathy nor sociopathy are classed as mental disorders in formal psychiatric diagnostic manuals. They are both personality traits that relate to antisocial behaviours and are associated with certain interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics. Psychopathy is thought to have genetic, biological and psychological bases that places someone at greater risk of violating other people’s rights. But sociopathy is less clearly defined and its antisocial behaviours are the product of someone’s social environment. Of the two, psychopathy has the greatest use in identifying someone who is most likely to cause damage to others.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226714/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/bruce-watt-1486350">Bruce Watt</a>, Associate Professor in Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarina-fritzon-402205">Katarina Fritzon</a>, Associate Professor of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-difference-between-a-psychopath-and-a-sociopath-less-than-you-might-think-226714">original article</a>. </div>

Mind

Climate change threatens Australian tourism more than is widely believed. Here’s why

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/freya-higgins-desbiolles-181651">Freya Higgins-Desbiolles</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> Right now, Australia is one of the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/publications/travel-tourism-development-index-2024/">top five</a> tourist destinations in the world, a distinction the World Economic Forum says it shares with only the United States, France, Spain and Japan. So important is tourism to Australia’s economy that the best estimates are it employs <a href="https://www.tra.gov.au/en/economic-analysis/state-of-the-industry">655,000</a> people, 12 times as many as <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/jul-2024">Australia’s coal industry</a>. And most of them are employed in <a href="https://www.zurich.com.au/content/dam/au-documents/files/zurich-mandala-climate-risk-index-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-australian-tourism-industry.pdf">regional locations</a>, where jobs are scarce. This month a report by the Zurich insurance group and the economic consultancy Mandala found <a href="https://www.zurich.com.au/content/dam/au-documents/files/zurich-mandala-climate-risk-index-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-australian-tourism-industry.pdf">half</a> of Australia’s top 178 tourism assets were at risk from foreseeable climate change. There are reasons to believe its findings underplay what we are facing. <h2>All major airports, all national parks at risk</h2> The Zurich-Mandala report examines the impact of a 2⁰C increase in global temperatures on only eight so-called “climate perils”: wind, flood, heat, storm, drought, bushfire, hail and rain. It found that more than half of Australia’s top tourism assets faced a “significant risk from multiple perils” over the next 25 years, including all of Australia’s major airports. Scheduling disruptions and the closure of airports in extreme weather conditions were set to have major impacts on the transport of goods, the transport of tourists and accessibility for emergency services. All of Australia’s vineyards, national parks, scenic roads and railways were at risk. Queensland had the highest number of sites facing significant risk (79%) followed by Western Australia (69%) and the Northern Territory (63%). The report uses the impact of the 2019-20 <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1920/Quick_Guides/AustralianBushfires">black summer bushfires</a> to estimate that 176,000 jobs might be at risk nationwide from predictable climate change, most of them outside of Australia’s capital cities. <h2>Multiple and interacting threats</h2> Here is why I am fearful that the report underplays the threat Australia’s tourism industry is facing. There are many more threats to tourism from climate change than wind, flood, heat, storm, drought, bushfire, hail and rain. One is the threat to biodiversity. Iconic animals and habitats are an important part of Australia’s brand. <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-07-28/3-billion-animals-killed-displaced-in-fires-wwf-study/12497976">Three billion</a> animals were killed or displaced in the black summer bushfires. The deaths caused <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/apr/01/alexis-wright-black-summer-bushfires-vigil-sydney-speech-3-billion-animals-killed-are-our-relatives-they-deserve-to-be-mourned">loss and grief</a> that risk indexes are incapable of capturing, but that nonetheless might make tourism less attractive. And biodiversity helps in another way by <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Hayward-Et-Al.-2016-Could-biodiversity-loss-have-increased-Australias-bushfire-threat.pdf">protecting against bushfires</a>, meaning that as species vanish, other risks to tourism climb in ways that aren’t captured in the assumptions used to evaluate risk. <h2>Threats unexamined</h2> What makes holiday locations unattractive is hard to measure, but is fed by extreme weather events. Although temporary, the smoke and heat from the 2019-20 bushfires made parts of Sydney, Melbourne and Canberra almost unlivable for a while, damaging the reputations of Australian capital cities in a way that is <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/not-a-good-look-bushfire-smoke-threatens-to-pollute-sydney-s-tourist-image-20191206-p53hpl.html">probably ongoing</a>. Another curious omission, especially curious given that the report was prepared by an insurance company, is the damage extreme weather events do to the insurability of tourism assets. The report is also silent on the effort to reduce carbon emissions on Australia’s desirability as an international destination. For many tourists, air travel is the only way to get to Australia and it is likely to become more expensive and also less attractive as tourists try to reduce their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652614011810">carbon footprints</a>. Australia might increasingly become an Australian rather than an international destination. Our biggest upcoming international promotion, the 2032 Brisbane Olympic Games, might lose a good deal of its shine, with Queensland tourism assets at the greatest risk from climate change, and those risks set to climb over time. <h2>The higher the temperature the bigger the threats</h2> Zurich and the Mandala consultancy are to be commended for identifying 178 top tourism assets and examining eight types of risk they face. Their finding that just over half of them face serious threats from those risks is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes other risks and fails to examine the way in which some risks can intensify others. And they will be an underestimate if global temperatures climb by more than 2⁰C. The report says if global temperatures climb to 3⁰C above pre-industrial levels, 80% of the Australian sites it examined will face serious threats. Australia could attempt to limit the increase in global temperatures by taking up the opportunity to co-host the <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-a-big-deal-if-australia-and-the-pacific-are-chosen-to-host-un-climate-talks-heres-why-238320">2026 UN climate talks</a> with Pacific nations. It would give us a shot at making a difference and drawing attention to our present status as one of the world’s top tourism destinations.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/238768/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/freya-higgins-desbiolles-181651">Freya Higgins-Desbiolles</a>, Adjunct professor and adjunct senior lecturer in tourism management, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-threatens-australian-tourism-more-than-is-widely-believed-heres-why-238768">original article</a>. </div>

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