Search

Is there a best way to peel a boiled egg? A food scientist explains

<h1 class="theconversation-article-title"> </h1> <div class="theconversation-article-body"> We’ve all been there – trying to peel a boiled egg, but mangling it beyond all recognition as the hard shell stubbornly sticks to the egg white. Worse, the egg ends up covered in chewy bits of adhesive membrane in the end. The internet is littered with various “hacks” that claim to prevent this problem. But there are several reasons why eggs can be hard to peel. Luckily, that means there are also science-based strategies we can use to avoid the problem. <h2>Egg ‘peelability’ factors</h2> <a href="https://www.sites.ext.vt.edu/virtualfarm/poultry/poultry_eggparts.html">Eggs consist</a> of a hard, porous shell, an inner and outer membrane, the egg white (albumen), and a membrane-encased yolk at the centre. There is also an air cell between the inner and outer membrane next to the shell. <figure class="align-right zoomable"><figcaption></figcaption></figure> A lot of research was done in the late 1960s and 1970s on factors that affect the peelability of eggs after they’ve been boiled. One of these factors is the pH of the egg white. An <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119530589">early study</a> from the 1960s indicated that the pH of the egg white needs to be in the range of 8.7–8.9, quite alkaline, in order for the egg to be easier to peel. Storage temperature has a role to play, too. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119430861">study from 1963</a> showed that storing eggs at about 22 degrees Celsius (or 72 degrees Fahrenheit) gives a better peelability result than storage at lower temperatures of 13°C, or even fridge temperatures at 3–5°C. Of course, there is a risk of spoilage if eggs are stored at higher ambient temperatures. In the studies, an increase in storage time before boiling – using less fresh eggs – also increased the ease of peelability. <h2>Step one: avoid fresh eggs</h2> The fact that fresh eggs are harder to peel is relatively well known. Based on the factors above, there are a couple of reasons for this. For one, in a fresh egg the air cell is still quite small. As the egg ages, it (very) slowly loses moisture through the porous shell, increasing the size of the air cell while the rest of the egg contents shrink. A bigger air cell makes it easier to start the peeling action. Additionally, egg whites, although they already start out relatively alkaline, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119325489">increase in pH</a> as the eggs age, also making them easier to peel. <h2>Step two: water temperature</h2> Some keen egg boiling pundits believe that <a href="https://www.taste.com.au/taste-test-kitchen/articles/you-boil-water-first-before-adding-eggs/jrp12gok">starting off with boiling water</a> and lowering it to a simmer before gently placing the eggs into it provides a better result. However, you want to do this with room temperature eggs to avoid them cracking due to a sudden temperature change. The reasoning behind this approach is that exposure to higher temperatures from the start of cooking also makes it easier for the membrane to come away from the shell and egg white. Furthermore, the quick hot start makes it easier for the egg white proteins to denature (change structure as they cook) and bond to each other, rather than to the membrane. After boiling eggs for the desired amount of time (typically 3–5 minutes for runny yolks, 6–7 minutes for jammy yolks, and 12–15 minutes for hard boiled), you can quench them in ice water. This should help the egg white to slightly shrink away from the shell, improving peelability. <h2>Step three (optional): adding things to the water</h2> Some other suggestions to improve peelability include adding salt to the boiling water, but this has mixed results. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119325489">In one study</a>, this approach did actually improve peelability, but this effect was lost after eggs had been stored for longer periods. Acids and alkali have also <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5053238A/en">been shown to aid eggshell peelability</a> or removal. The patent that describes this used rather harsh substances with the goal to dissolve away the shell. But based on this idea, you could try adding baking soda or vinegar to the water. With vinegar, the theory is that it attacks the calcium carbonate in the eggshell to then aid its removal. As for baking soda, because it’s alkaline, it could help detach the membrane from the shell. <h2>Bonus: alternative cooking methods</h2> There are other methods for hard-cooking eggs, such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-4549.1977.tb00317.x">pressure steaming</a>, air-frying and even microwaving. In steaming eggs, some proponents theorise that water vapour permeates the eggshell, loosening the membrane from the egg white, and thereby making the egg much easier to peel. While studies have recently been done on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772275924000200#tbl0001">air-frying of other foods</a>, there is still scope to further understand how this style of cooking might affect eggshells and peelability. Lastly, once you have successfully separated the eggshells, don’t just throw them in the bin. There are lots of different uses for them, including compost, slug and snail deterrent in your garden, using them as little biodegradable pots for seedlings, or even something as advanced as <a href="https://www.unisq.edu.au/news/2024/10/egg-research">scaffolds for cancer research</a>.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/235895/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/paulomi-polly-burey-404695">Paulomi (Polly) Burey</a>, Professor in Food Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-southern-queensland-1069">University of Southern Queensland</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-there-a-best-way-to-peel-a-boiled-egg-a-food-scientist-explains-235895">original article</a>. Image: Shutterstock </div>

Food & Wine

A century after its discovery, scientists capture first confirmed footage of a colossal squid in the deep

<div class="theconversation-article-body">The colossal squid was first described in 1925 based on specimens from the stomach of a commercially hunted sperm whale. A century later, an international voyage captured the first confirmed video of this species in its natural habitat – a 30-centimetre juvenile, at a depth of 600 metres near the South Sandwich Islands. Colossal squid can grow up to seven metres and weigh as much as 500 kilograms, making them the heaviest invertebrate on the planet. But little is known about their life cycle. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lzPoG9H8Hlo?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>The first sighting of a juvenile colossal squid in its natural environment. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute.</figcaption></figure> The footage of a young colossal squid in the water column was a serendipitous sighting, as many deep-sea squid observations are. It was seen during the live “divestream” feed of a remotely operated vehicle during the <a href="https://2022annualreport.schmidtocean.org/">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a> and <a href="https://oceancensus.org/">Ocean Census</a> partner expedition searching for new deep-sea species and habitats in the far south Atlantic, mostly focusing on the seafloor. Those tuned into the stream had the remarkable experience of seeing a live colossal squid in its deep-sea home, although its identity was not confirmed until the high-definition footage could be reviewed later. Predators such as whales and seabirds are still one of our best sources of information about the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni) because they are much better at finding it than we are. This partially explains why we have only just filmed this species in its natural habitat. Not only do these animals live in an enormous, dark and three-dimensional environment, they are also probably actively avoiding us. Most of our deep-sea exploration equipment is large, noisy and uses bright lights if we are trying to film animals. But the colossal squid can detect and avoid diving sperm whales, which probably produce a strong light signal as they swim down and disturb bioluminescent animals. The squid best able to avoid such predators have been passing on their genes for millions of years. This leaves us with a current population of visually acute, likely light-avoiding animals, well capable of detecting a light signal from many metres away. <h2>Delicate beauty of deep-sea animals</h2> The colossal squid is part of the “glass” squid family (Cranchiidae). Three known glass squid species are found in the Antarctic ocean, but it can be difficult to distinguish them on camera. Researchers from the organisation Kolossal, aiming to film the colossal squid, observed a similarly sized glass squid during their fourth Antarctic mission in 2023. But since the characteristic features needed to identify a colossal squid – hooks on the ends of the two long tentacles and in the middle of each of the eight shorter arms – weren’t clearly visible, its exact identity remains unconfirmed. In the Schmidt Ocean Institute footage, the mid-arm hooks are visible. And for this young individual, the resemblance to other glass squids is also clear. With age and size, colossal squid likely lose their transparent appearance and become much more of an anomaly within the family. While many will be amused by the idea of a “small colossal” squid, this footage showcases a beauty shared by many deep-sea animals, in contrast to the monster hype and “stuff of nightmares” click-bait titles we see all too often. This colossal squid looks like a delicate glass sculpture, with fins of such fine musculature they are barely visible. It has shining iridescent eyes and graceful arms fanned out from the head. At full size, the colossal squid may be a formidable predator, with its stout arms and array of sharp hooks, able to tackle two-metre-long toothfish. But in our first confirmed view of it at home in the deep sea, we can marvel at the elegance of this animal, thriving in an environment where humans require so much technology even to visit remotely. <h2>Stranger than science fiction</h2> Until recently, few people were able to take part in deep-sea exploration. But now, anyone with an internet connection can be “in the room” while we explore these habitats and observe animals for the first time. It’s hard to overstate the importance of the deep sea. It holds hundreds of thousands of undiscovered species, it is probably where life on Earth started, and it makes up 95% of the available living space on our planet. It has animals more splendid and strange than our most creative science fiction imaginings. This includes squids that start life looking like small light bulbs and then grow into true giants; colonies of individuals living together with each contributing to the group’s success; animals where males (often parasitic) are orders of magnitude smaller than females. This first confirmed sighting of a colossal squid inspires and reminds us how much we have left to learn. <hr /> The expedition that captured the footage of the colossal squid was a collaboration between the Schmidt Ocean Institute, the Nippon Foundation-NEKTON Ocean Census, and GoSouth (a joint project between the University of Plymouth, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research and the British Antarctic Survey).<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/254584/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <hr /> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kat-bolstad-646280">Kat Bolstad</a>, Associate Professor of Environmental Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/auckland-university-of-technology-1137">Auckland University of Technology</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-century-after-its-discovery-scientists-capture-first-confirmed-footage-of-a-colossal-squid-in-the-deep-254584">original article</a>. Image: Schmidt Ocean Institute </div>

Technology

Incredible breakthrough after scientists make dire wolves "de-extinct"

The legendary dire wolf – an iconic creature that vanished around 13,000 years ago and gained fame through HBO’s Game of Thrones – has made an extraordinary return. This resurgence is the result of a cutting-edge genetic project spearheaded by Colossal Biosciences, marking the first-ever successful "de-extinction" of a species. In a groundbreaking announcement recently, Colossal revealed the birth of three healthy dire wolf pups – Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi – who were created by combining DNA from ancient dire wolf fossils and the genes of their closest living relative, the grey wolf. The news marks a milestone in both genetic engineering and conservation science, offering a glimpse into the future of species revival. The pups' arrival was made possible by the expertise of Colossal’s team, which used DNA from a 13,000-year-old tooth and a 72,000-year-old skull. Ben Lamm, CEO of Colossal, expressed his excitement over the breakthrough, saying, “It was once said, ‘any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic’. Today, our team gets to unveil some of the magic they are working on and its broader impact on conservation.” The dire wolf pups were created using somatic cell nuclear transfer, a cloning technique that involved inserting cell nuclei from the ancient DNA into donor egg cells. These embryos were then implanted into a surrogate dog mother, who gave birth in January. The pups are now thriving in a secure 800-hectare ecological preserve, where they receive round-the-clock care from a dedicated team of 10 staff members. The dire wolf, once a dominant predator across North America, were fierce hunters that roamed alongside Ice Age megafauna such as mastodons and sabre-toothed tigers. They preyed on large mammals like horses, bison and potentially mammoths, but after these species went extinct, the dire wolf's reign also came to an end. According to palaeontologist Julie Meachen, with the loss of their prey, the dire wolf was gradually replaced by the grey wolf, which filled the ecological void. Dire wolves were notably larger and more muscular than their modern grey relatives, with jaws and shoulders built for powerful hunts. Their revival has captivated both science enthusiasts and pop culture fans alike. Lamm and George Church, a Harvard biologist, co-founded Colossal Biosciences with the ambitious goal of bringing back extinct species. The company is also working toward reviving the woolly mammoth and the Tasmanian tiger, and has already successfully engineered a woolly mouse, known for its curly fur reminiscent of the woolly mammoth's iconic coat. Dr Christopher Mason, a scientific adviser for Colossal, hailed the de-extinction of the dire wolf as a transformative leap in genetic engineering. "This is an extraordinary technological leap for both science and conservation," he stated. "It’s a wonderful example of the power of biotechnology to protect species, both extant and extinct." Images: Colossal Biosciences

Technology

What are sleep retreats? A sleep scientist explains the latest wellness trend

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jason-ellis-280919">Jason Ellis</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/northumbria-university-newcastle-821">Northumbria University, Newcastle</a> Considering the effect of poor sleep on the individual as well as on <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5627640/">society and the economy</a>, it is hardly surprising sleep has become an intense area of research focus in recent years. Most recently we have seen an <a href="https://www.voguebusiness.com/story/beauty/the-beauty-consumer-trends-set-to-define-2025">increase</a> in the <a href="https://www.aspiretravelclub.co.uk/insight/in-focus-the-rise-of-sleep-retreats">offering of and appetite for</a> so-called <a href="https://www.countryandtownhouse.com/style/health-and-beauty/sleep-retreats/">sleep retreats</a>. But what are sleep retreats and are they helpful? As with any specialised retreat, there is no set formula for what a sleep retreat should focus on. As such, the range of what is available is incredibly variable, from retreats that just focus on a sleep-friendly environment (a cool, dark, quiet and comfortable bedroom in a luxurious location) to ones specifically aimed at managing a specific sleep disorder, using evidence-based therapies, such as cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia. There are even ones that provide, among other things, a regimen of vitamins and minerals delivered intravenously. Most, however, fall somewhere between focusing on meditation, exercise and relaxation. Although there is good evidence that exercise, at the right intensity and duration, can be <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helen-Driver-3/publication/10948102_Exercise_and_sleep/links/5f578ffca6fdcc9879d67d41/Exercise-and-sleep.pdf">beneficial for sleep</a>, it is unlikely that a lack of exercise alone causes poor sleep. Similarly, there is some, albeit poor quality, evidence that <a href="https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/40186">meditation and relaxation improve sleep quality</a>. As such, it is unlikely that these treatments alone will fix a sleep problem. The main challenge is that sleep, as with diet or exercise, is just an overarching term for a complex behaviour, one that is influenced and can influence almost every area of a person’s life. For example, I am <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-022-03162-1">hearing a lot</a> about supplementing with magnesium to aid sleep, but this is only likely to be beneficial if you are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780124201682000314">deficient in the first place</a>. <h2>What to consider before you splash the cash</h2> So, should we approach the sleep retreat with caution? Not necessarily, it is more a case of doing your homework. First, who does the sleep retreat cater for, and what do you hope to get from the retreat? The busy executive who only allows themselves four hours of sleep a night will have very different expectations and experiences to a person who has undiagnosed sleep apnoea and sleeps for nine hours but wants to know why they are so sleepy during the day. This leads to the second consideration: what kind of pre-screening (for conditions that might be causing insomnia) and personalisation do they offer? Many retreats advertise an individual consultation as part of the package but don’t really say what that will cover (a sleep, medical and psychiatric history and lifestyle assessment should be done as a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jsr.14035">bare minimum</a>. This is vital when we consider that while well-established, evidence-based treatments for a variety of sleep disturbances and disorders exist, they are not suitable for everyone. Also, there is a <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/fo/d4fo01113a/unauth">perception</a> that non-pharmacological therapies, including nutraceuticals (products derived from food sources that said to have health benefits) and over-the-counter remedies (such as antihistamines, melatonin and valerian), don’t have side-effects, which is <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/fo/d4fo01113a/unauth">not necessarily the case</a>. The final considerations are: who is delivering the retreat? And is what they are offering based on sound scientific evidence? Considering certification in sleep medicine is a hot topic in the sleep community at the moment, it is worth doing some research. For example, in the UK there is no pathway to becoming a sleep medicine specialist, consultant or coach. So who is leading the sleep retreat and is what they offering evidence-based?<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/247632/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jason-ellis-280919">Jason Ellis</a>, Professor of Sleep Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/northumbria-university-newcastle-821">Northumbria University, Newcastle</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-sleep-retreats-a-sleep-scientist-explains-the-latest-wellness-trend-247632">original article</a>. </div>

Travel Tips

Festive bulge: scientists offer advice on how to beat overeating

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/thomas-c-erren-336309">Thomas C. Erren</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/philip-lewis-429997">Philip Lewis</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ursula-wild-1398207">Ursula Wild</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a> Christmas and New Year are holidays with dietary excesses that many of us cannot control. This often leads to the “festive bulge”. As the holidays approach, could there be a recipe to contain this weight gain and pave the way to sustainable nutrition-based health at the same time? There’s a lot of focus on what we eat and how much we eat – but what about when we eat? Chrononutrition is the science of how timing affects our responses to nutrients. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867415003025?via%3Dihub">Scientific insights</a> into when we eat suggest it may be worth exploring for better health. While the idea of getting started on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9370396/">chrononutrition over Christmas</a> can sound challenging, the guilty conscience that tends to follow feasting over the holidays may provide the needed motivation for the year ahead. So for better health in the new year, why not try out time-restricted eating (TRE)? TRE is a type of <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-intermittent-fasting-actually-good-for-weight-loss-heres-what-the-evidence-says-183500">intermittent fasting</a>: a person eats all their meals and snacks within a particular time window, ranging from six to 12 hours each day. This implies 12 to 18 hours of fasting. <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-body-weight-affected-by-when-you-eat-heres-what-science-knows-so-far-143303">More</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/delay-eating-breakfast-and-eat-dinner-early-if-you-want-to-lose-body-fat-new-study-101058">more research</a> suggests that this kind of timing may have a significant influence on our health via <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25404320/">interplays</a> between our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25815987/">body clocks and nutrition</a>. As researchers with a focus on circadian biology, we have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9370396/">identified the festive season</a> as a suitable starting point for a lifestyle change to time-restricted eating. <h2>What is chrononutrition?</h2> The basic idea of chrononutrition is that the body’s response to the timing of meals can promote well-being and health via the circadian timing system. This timing system refers to the internal 24-hour mechanism that primes our bodies for the challenges and stimuli of the 24-hour day. This includes when nutrients are likely to be consumed, how they are used within the body at a given time and how the body responds to them at a given time. A rodent experiment in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article-abstract/10/1/63/4725662">1930s</a> led to a focus on counting calories and calorie-restricted eating. This dietary restriction extended the lifespan of rats in this case. It was subsequently shown in a wide range of species. The promise is large: if you eat less, then weight loss, better health and a longer life may follow. The rodent experiment was followed by research into diets that foster health and prevent disease. Interest in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3794831/">“meal-timing, circadian rhythms and lifespan”</a> was sparked by Franz Halberg (known as the father of American chronobiology), among others, in the 1980s. These studies around food and behaviour take <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25404320/">evolutionary considerations</a> into account. For instance, rodents gain fitness when fed in a time-restricted manner. In contrast, human behaviour tends to involve more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26411343/">erratic eating patterns</a> during the hours when people are awake. <h2>Lifestyle changes</h2> So what practical advice can we give on the occasion of Christmas and New Year from the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2017/advanced-information/">2017 Nobel Prize-winning field of chronobiology</a>? The field gained recognition for its discoveries into how internal clocks organise our physiology and enable us to live in harmony with the external rhythms of day and night. Findings from this field point to a simple lifestyle change: limiting when you eat to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4255155/">eight to 10 hours</a> a day could protect you from developing obesity, or even lessen the negative health impacts of existing obesity. And time-restricted eating can work even if practised for only <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4255155/">five days per week</a>. Importantly, if you can reduce a long habitual eating window (for instance, 15 hours) to a time-restricted eating window of eight hours, you are likely to benefit more than someone who reduces a habitual eating window of 10 hours to eight hours. Reductions in eating-time windows have already <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">been found</a> to help some overweight humans lose weight, sleep better and feel more energised. Granted, much of the evidence comes from animal studies – and humans are certainly not big mice. Nonetheless, there have been no reports of detriments to this practice in humans. However, there has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0899900722001897?via%3Dihub">one report</a> of possible disadvantages to offspring in a pregnant animal model of time-restricted eating. <h2>Late breakfast and early supper</h2> Why not try what some studies suggest and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9370396/">start time-restricted eating over Christmas</a>, or put it on your New Year’s resolution list? To get started, consider having a late breakfast and an early dinner. Of course, if in doubt about the impact of time-restricted eating – or if you have medical or dietary restrictions, or are pregnant – talk to your doctors first for advice. Beyond paying attention to calorie intake and food composition, “when we eat” is a relatively simple and potentially sustainable approach.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195822/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/thomas-c-erren-336309">Thomas C. Erren</a>, Professor, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/philip-lewis-429997">Philip Lewis</a>, Research associate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ursula-wild-1398207">Ursula Wild</a>, Research Associate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-cologne-2576">University of Cologne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/festive-bulge-scientists-offer-advice-on-how-to-beat-overeating-195822">original article</a>. </div>

Body

A man scouring Google Earth found a mysterious scar in the Australian outback – and now scientists know what caused it

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/matej-lipar-1372667">Matej Lipar</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/curtin-university-873">Curtin University</a> Earlier this year, a caver was poring over satellite images of the Nullarbor Plain when he came across something unexpected: an enormous, mysterious scar etched into the barren landscape. The find intrigued scientists, including my colleagues and I. Upon closer investigation, we realised the scar was created by a ferocious tornado that no-one knew had occurred. We outline the findings in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/ES24023">new research</a> published today. Tornadoes are a known threat in the United States and elsewhere. But they also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.03.011">happen in Australia</a>. Without the power of technology, this remarkable example of nature’s ferocity would have gone unnoticed. It’s important to study the tornado’s aftermath to help us predict and prepare for the next big twister. <h2>Australia’s tornado history</h2> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-05381-8">Tornadoes</a> are violent, spinning columns of air that drop from thunderstorms to the ground, bringing wind speeds often exceeding 200 kilometres an hour. They can cause massive destruction – uprooting trees, tearing apart buildings and throwing debris over large distances. Tornadoes have been reported on every continent except Antarctica. They most commonly occur in the Great Plains region of the United States, and in the north-east region of India–Bangladesh. The earliest tornado observed by settlers in Australia occurred in 1795 in the suburbs of Sydney. But a tornado was not confirmed here by Western scientists until the late 1800s. In recent decades, documented instances in Australia include a <a href="https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/tornado-murray-river-townships-victoria-2013/#:%7E:text=Tornado%20%2D%20Murray%20River%20townships%2C%202013&text=At%20approximately%208.00pm%20on,border%20of%20New%20South%20Wales.">2013 tornado</a> that crossed north-east Victoria and travelled up to the New South Wales border. It brought winds between 250–300 kilometres an hour and damaged Murray River townships. And in 2016, a severe storm produced <a href="https://theconversation.com/severe-thunderstorms-are-sweeping-through-southern-australia-but-what-makes-a-thunderstorm-severe-241555#:%7E:text=In%202016%2C%20huge%20rotating%20supercell,after%20taking%20down%20six%20towers.">at least seven tornadoes</a> in central and eastern parts of South Australia. It’s important for scientists to accurately predict tornadoes, so we can issue warnings to communities. That’s why the Nullarbor tornado scar was useful to study. <h2>A whirlwind mystery</h2> The Nullarbor Plain is a remote, dry, treeless stretch of land in southern Australia. The man who discovered the scar had been using Google Earth satellite imagery to search the Nullabor for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24267-0_11">caves</a> or other karst features. Karst is a landscape underlain by limestone featuring distinctive landforms. The discovery of the scar came to the attention of my colleagues and I through the collaborative network of researchers and explorers who study the Nullarbor karst. The scar stretches from Western Australia over the border to South Australia. It lies 20 kilometres north of the <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/trans-australian-railway">Trans-Australian Railway</a> and 90 kilometres east-north-east of Forrest, a former railway settlement. We compared satellite imagery of the site over several years to determine that the tornado occurred between November 16 and 18, 2022. Blue circular patterns appeared alongside the scar, indicating pools of water associated with heavy rain. My colleagues and I then travelled to the site in May this year to examine and photograph the scar and the neighbouring landscape. Our results have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/ES24023">published today</a> in the Journal of Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems Science. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/633465/original/file-20241121-17-bx4uhg.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="map of Australia's southwest coast with dots showing recorded tornadoes" /><figcaption>Map showing tornado events in Western Australia and South Australia between 1795 and 2014. The location of the tornado scar in the study is shown with a red dot. Source: Severe Thunderstorm Archive/Australian Bureau of Meteorology</figcaption></figure> <h2>What we found</h2> The scar is 11 kilometres long and between 160 and 250 metres wide. It bears striking patterns called “cycloidal marks”, formed by tornado suction vortexes. This suggests the tornado was no ordinary storm but in the strong <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19720008829">F2 or F3</a> category, spinning with destructive winds of more than 200 kilometres an hour. The tornado probably lasted between seven and 13 minutes. Features of the scar suggest the whirling wind within the tornado was moving in a clockwise direction. We also think the tornado moved from west to east – which is consistent with the direction of a strong cold front in the region at the time. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/622894/original/file-20241002-20-xzi4qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="spiralling masks in dry earth" /><figcaption>‘Cycloidal marks’ in the tornado scar, caused by multiple vortexes. Google Earth satellite imagery</figcaption></figure> Local weather observations also recorded intensive cloud cover and rainfall during that period in November 2022. Unlike tornadoes that hit populated areas, this one did not damage homes or towns. But it left its mark nonetheless, eroding soil and vegetation and reshaping the Earth’s surface. Remarkably, the scar was still clearly visible 18 months after the event, both in satellite images and on the ground. This is probably because vegetation grows slowly in this dry landscape, so hadn’t yet covered the erosion. <h2>Predict and prepare</h2> This fascinating discovery on the Nullarbor Plain shows how powerful and unpredictable nature can be – sometimes without us knowing. Only three tornadoes have previously been documented on the Nullarbor Plain. This is likely because the area is remote with few eye-witnesses, and because the events do not damage properties and infrastructure. Interestingly, those three tornadoes occurred in November, just like this one. Our research provides valuable insights into the tornadoes in this remote and little-studied region. It helps us understand when, and in what conditions, these types of tornadoes occur. It also emphasises the importance of satellite imagery in identifying and analysing weather phenomena in remote locations, and in helping us predict and prepare for the next big event. And finally, the results are a stark reminder that extreme weather can strike anywhere, anytime. <hr /> Hero Image: Author supplied/Google Earth This article has been amended to clarify that a reference to early tornado observations relates only to the period after British colonisation.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/239867/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/matej-lipar-1372667">Matej Lipar</a>, Adjunct Research Fellow, School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/curtin-university-873">Curtin University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-man-scouring-google-earth-found-a-mysterious-scar-in-the-australian-outback-and-now-scientists-know-what-caused-it-239867">original article</a>. </div>

Domestic Travel

Why IBD is so hard to treat – and how scientists are making progress

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/falk-hildebrand-1490022">Falk Hildebrand</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarzyna-sidorczuk-1490026">Katarzyna Sidorczuk</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/wing-koon-1490274">Wing Koon</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a> Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5478758/">life altering</a> chronic illness that is <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/13/3/e065186">rising dramatically globally</a>. It is stubbornly difficult to treat, and many people find the treatments we have just don’t work for them. Over the last 30 years, there has been almost a 50% increase in cases – now affecting around 5 million people. Not to be confused with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) which is a condition that affects the digestive system, IBD is more serious. It is the term for two severe illnesses called <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/crohns-disease/">Crohn’s disease</a> and <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ulcerative-colitis/">ulcerative colitis</a>. More women are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9958616/#:%7E:text=Male%20predominance%20in%20IBD.,%2C%202.32%3A1%20in%20CD.">diagnosed with Crohn’s disease</a> while more men are affected by ulcerative colitis. People with IBD can experience a variety of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4106026/">symptoms</a>, ranging from diarrhoea and blood in the stool, to weight loss and belly aches. On paper, this may sound no worse than mild food poisoning, however, this is no normal stomach upset. Experiences are often extreme; people with IBD can suffer excruciating pain and in some cases, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9963331/">require surgery</a> to remove parts of the bowel. This is done by redirecting the bowel to a hole in the abdomen, where faeces are collected in a <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/colostomy/">colostomy bag</a>. However, we still don’t fully understand the cause of IBD. <h2>The impact of inflammation</h2> The main symptom of IBD is excessive and uncontrolled <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5805548/">inflammation</a> – normally a sign of the body fighting off an infection. Although inflammation is an important aspect of our immune system, in IBD it is happening when the body is not under attack. Since we don’t know what causes this over-the-top reaction, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8720971/">treatments</a> are limited to managing the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3964397/">derailed immune system</a>. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8373857/">Inflammation is controlled</a> by cell signalling. Our cells detect bacteria using receptors that attach to parts of bacteria. This activates the receptor, causing it to send a signal to proteins, and each protein sends on more signals, creating a signal cascade. This is what tells the body it’s under attack. Many treatments follow the strategy of intercepting signals and preventing the signal cascade from starting. However, they are <a href="https://journals.lww.com/co-gastroenterology/abstract/2022/07000/management_of_refractory_inflammatory_bowel.6.aspx">not effective</a> for many people. Scientists are trying to target a different protein network, called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2924159/">NOD2</a>, that often goes haywire in people with IBD but is not targeted by current treatments. A protein, called <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2021.650403/full">RIPK2</a>, seems like a promising target since it is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6939834/">only found</a> in this network. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10485824/">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> are investigating its structure to help scientists design a new medication that will block the signals from this protein. <h2>Importance of the microbiome</h2> Another inspiration for new treatments comes from the bacteria residing in our guts. This community of bacteria, called the gut microbiome, has been associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6314516/">all sorts of health conditions</a> ranging from asthma to obesity. Gut bacteria work closely with our bodies and play a vital role in digesting food and managing our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41422-020-0332-7">immune system</a>. In a healthy person, there is a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4143175/">fine balance</a> between gut bacteria and the immune system. Disruption of this balance can lead to disease, starting from minor discomfort to more severe, long-term conditions. Scientists are trying to understand how our bodies interact with gut bacteria, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8102608/">what changes</a> when people develop IBD. The gut microbiome is an ecosystem. Just like a forest has animals eating different things, microbes can form a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00153/full">food web</a>. Some bacteria will use up one type of food, while others feed off other foods. Some rely on the waste of other bacteria after they’ve eaten. It is now believed that disruption to the gut microbiome is a characteristic of IBD and contributes to its development and progression. It’s a chicken and egg situation. Is there a change in the bacteria and food web that alters our bodies? Or does something else in the body, like our immune system, change the food web, subsequently limiting which bacteria can grow? Scientists aren’t sure of the answer. Instead of trying to figure out what happens first, a team at the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42112-w">Hudson Institute of Medical Research</a> in Australia have focused on investigating which interactions in the food web are the most affected in IBD. This could help scientists to prioritise certain gut bacteria, or their food source, to restore the balance in the microbiome and improve patients’ symptoms. Hopefully, this specialised targeting of the microbiome will lead to more effective and longer lasting treatments. Although we have a long way to go before these ideas for treatments can become a reality, it is a step in the right direction. Targeting a new signalling pathway will hopefully control the inflammation in more patients. And studying the microbiome may reveal how we can reverse changes associated with IBD. Since they are key features of IBD, these developments could allow doctors to stop the disease in the early stages and reduce complications.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218307/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/falk-hildebrand-1490022">Falk Hildebrand</a>, Researcher in Bioinformatician, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarzyna-sidorczuk-1490026">Katarzyna Sidorczuk</a>, Research Scientist in Metagenomics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/wing-koon-1490274">Wing Koon</a>, PhD student in Bioinformatics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/quadram-institute-5557">Quadram Institute</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-ibd-is-so-hard-to-treat-and-how-scientists-are-making-progress-218307">original article</a>. </div>

Body

"Do you hear it?": Worldwide hum global mystery baffles scientists

A perplexing phenomenon known as "The Worldwide Hum" has been capturing the attention of scientists and citizens alike, as an unusual low-frequency noise continues to puzzle experts. This mysterious hum, first recorded in 2012, has been reported by thousands of people worldwide, sparking investigations, online discussions and even <a href="https://www.thehum.info/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the creation of an interactive map</a> documenting instances of the enigmatic sound. As researchers strive to unravel the mystery, individuals share their experiences, raising questions about its origin and effects. Described as a low rumbling or droning sound, "the hum" is often likened to the idling of a car or truck engine. What makes this phenomenon particularly intriguing is that it is not universally heard, with reports of the hum being exclusive to certain individuals. Some claim it is more pronounced at night than during the day, and louder indoors than outdoors. One Reddit user even compared it to the low-frequency vibrations felt when a passenger jet flies overhead. Since its first documentation, more than 6,500 instances of the hum have been reported globally, with new cases continually emerging. The interactive user-generated World Hum Map and Database Project captures the experiences of those who have encountered the sound, providing a comprehensive overview of its widespread occurrence. In some regions, authorities such as the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) have conducted investigations, as was the case in the NSW Waverley Council ten years ago. Despite these efforts, the source of the hum remains elusive. Individuals affected by the mysterious noise often find solace in online communities, where they share their experiences and discuss possible explanations. Some describe feeling as though they are "going insane", and say that the psychological impact of the persistent hum is actually very severe. Facebook support groups have become a platform for individuals to connect, share anecdotes and speculate about the origin of the sound. Theories range from the mundane – such as the use of headphones causing collective tinnitus – to more complex environmental factors. While tinnitus, a symptom of auditory system issues, has been proposed as a potential explanation, it does not account for the collective experience of the hum. Various theories, including industrial plants, ocean waves, lightning strikes and the proliferation of mobile phone towers, have been suggested over the years. However, none of these explanations have gained widespread acceptance or provided a conclusive answer. Dr Glen MacPherson, who initiated the World Hum Map and Database Project, experienced the hum firsthand on Canada's Sunshine Coast. Having debunked the idea of "hum hotspots", Dr MacPherson theorises that the hum may be a subjective phenomenon, akin to tinnitus, originating from within the individual rather than an external source. His 11 years of research highlight the complexity of the mystery, challenging initial assumptions and pointing towards the need for further investigation. As "The Worldwide Hum" continues to captivate the curiosity of scientists and citizens worldwide, the quest for understanding remains elusive. While theories abound, the true origin of the hum remains unknown, leaving both experts and individuals alike intrigued by a phenomenon that transcends geographic boundaries and defies conventional explanations. Image: Getty

Body

Surprise! Scientists find falls likely when texting and walking

It seems obvious that texting while walking is <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/people/behaviour/millennials-most-likely-to-text-and-drive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risky</a> business. But while there has been plenty of research showing it’s a dangerous distraction, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966636217309670" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">some</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0179802" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have suggested that younger people are better at negotiating obstacles while on their phones. <div class="copy"> A study <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18366" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in Heliyon has refuted this, finding that university students are more likely to fall if they walk while texting. It also found they’re less accurate texters while walking. “On any day it seems as many as 80% of people, both younger and older, may be head down and texting. I wondered: is this safe?” said senior author Dr Matthew Brodie, a neuroscientist and engineer at the University of New South Wales. “This has made me want to investigate the dangers of texting while walking. I wanted to know if these dangers are real or imagined and to measure the risk in a repeatable way.” Brodie and colleagues recruited 50 undergraduate students from UNSW to take part in the study. Participants walked across a specially built tiled surface, fitted with a tile that could slip out halfway through. They were asked to either walk across the surface normally, or walk across it while texting “the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog”. The students were strapped to safety harnesses so they couldn’t fall, and told they may or may not slip. <div style="position: relative; display: block; max-width: 100%;"> <div style="padding-top: 56.25%;"><iframe style="position: absolute; top: 0px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; left: 0px; width: 100%; height: 100%;" src="https://players.brightcove.net/5483960636001/HJH3i8Guf_default/index.html?videoId=6332776122112" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></div> </div> The methods used in the experiment. Credit: Heliyon Brodie et al. “What surprised me is how differently people responded to the threat of slipping,” says Brodie. “Some slowed down and took a more cautious approach. Others sped up in anticipation of slipping. Such different approaches reinforce how no two people are the same, and to better prevent accidents from texting while walking, multiple strategies may be needed.” The researchers recorded motion data from the students as they moved and slipped, analysing how stable they were. They found that texting while walking made the students significantly less stable. Specifically, the students “trunk angle” – the angle of their torsos – varied more when they were slipping while texting. This means they were less stable. Participants were also less accurate texters when they did it while walking as opposed to sitting down, and least accurate when they did slip over. “Pedestrians should therefore be discouraged through new educational and technology-based initiatives (for example a ‘texting lock’ on detection of walking) from texting while walking on roadside footpaths and other environments where substantial hazards to safety exist,” conclude the researchers in their paper. Image credits: Shutterstock <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/body-and-mind/texting-walking-falls/">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/ellen-phiddian/">Ellen Phiddian</a>. </div>

Body

Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by 2030s, say scientists – this would have global, damaging and dangerous consequences

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jonathan-bamber-102567">Jonathan Bamber</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-bristol-1211">University of Bristol</a> The Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by the 2030s, even if we do a good job of reducing emissions between now and then. That’s the worrying conclusion of a new study in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-38511-8">Nature Communications</a>. Predictions of an ice-free Arctic Ocean have a long and complicated history, and the 2030s is sooner than most scientists had thought possible (though it is later than some had wrongly forecast). What we know for sure is the disappearance of sea ice at the top of the world would not only be an emblematic sign of climate breakdown, but it would have global, damaging and dangerous consequences. The Arctic has been experiencing climate heating <a href="https://theconversation.com/arctic-is-warming-nearly-four-times-faster-than-the-rest-of-the-world-new-research-188474">faster than any other part of the planet</a>. As it is at the frontline of climate change, the eyes of many scientists and local indigenous people have been on the sea ice that covers much of the Arctic Ocean in winter. This thin film of frozen seawater expands and contracts with the seasons, reaching a minimum area in September each year. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=184&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530136/original/file-20230605-19-mdh85y.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Animation of Arctic sea ice from space" /></a><figcaption>Arctic sea ice grows until March and then shrinks until September. <a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/esnt/2022/nasa-finds-2022-arctic-winter-sea-ice-10th-lowest-on-record">NASA</a></figcaption></figure> The ice which remains at the end of summer is called multiyear sea ice and is considerably thicker than its seasonal counterpart. It acts as barrier to the transfer of both moisture and heat between the ocean and atmosphere. Over the past 40 years this multiyear sea ice has shrunk from around <a href="http://polarportal.dk/en/sea-ice-and-icebergs/sea-ice-extent0/">7 million sq km to 4 million</a>. That is a loss equivalent to roughly the size of India or 12 UKs. In other words, it’s a big signal, one of the most stark and dramatic signs of fundamental change to the climate system anywhere in the world. As a consequence, there has been considerable effort invested in determining when the Arctic Ocean might first become ice-free in summer, sometimes called a “blue ocean event” and defined as when the sea ice area drops below 1 million sq kms. This threshold is used mainly because older, thicker ice along parts of Canada and northern Greenland is expected to remain long after the rest of the Arctic Ocean is ice-free. We can’t put an exact date on the last blue ocean event, but one in the near future would likely mean open water at the North Pole for the first time in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10581">thousands of years</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530138/original/file-20230605-29-9uuhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Annotated map of Arctic" /></a><figcaption>The thickest ice (highlighted in pink) is likely to remain even if the North Pole is ice-free. <a class="source" href="https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/2015/05/new-tools-for-sea-ice-thickness/">NERC Center for Polar Observation and Modelling</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></figcaption></figure> One problem with predicting when this might occur is that sea ice is notoriously difficult to model because it is influenced by both atmospheric and oceanic circulation as well as the flow of heat between these two parts of the climate system. That means that the climate models – powerful computer programs used to simulate the environment – need to get all of these components right to be able to accurately predict changes in sea ice extent. <h2>Melting faster than models predicted</h2> Back in the 2000s, an assessment of early generations of climate models found they generally <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2007GL029703">underpredicted the loss of sea ice</a> when compared to satellite data showing what actually happened. The models predicted a loss of about 2.5% per decade, while the observations were closer to 8%. The next generation of models did better but were <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2012GL052676">still not matching observations</a> which, at that time were suggesting a blue ocean event would happen by mid-century. Indeed, the latest <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/">IPCC climate science report</a>, published in 2021, reaches a similar conclusion about the timing of an ice-free Arctic Ocean. As a consequence of the problems with the climate models, some scientists have attempted to extrapolate the observational record resulting in the controversial and, ultimately, incorrect assertion that this would happen <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/21/arctic-will-be-ice-free-in-summer-next-year">during the mid 2010s</a>. This did not help the credibility of the scientific community and its ability to make reliable projections. <h2>Ice-free by 2030?</h2> The scientists behind the latest study have taken a different approach by, in effect, calibrating the models with the observations and then using this calibrated solution to project sea ice decline. This makes a lot of sense, because it reduces the effect of small biases in the climate models that can in turn bias the sea ice projections. They call these “observationally constrained” projections and find that the Arctic could become ice-free in summer as early as 2030, even if we do a good job of reducing emissions between now and then. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530365/original/file-20230606-21-usmovg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Walruses on ice floe" /></a><figcaption>Walruses depend on sea ice. As it melts, they’re being forced onto land. outdoorsman / shutterstock</figcaption></figure> There is still plenty of uncertainty around the exact date – about <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070067">20 years or so</a> – because of natural chaotic fluctuations in the climate system. But compared to previous research, the new study still brings forward the most likely timing of a blue ocean event by about a decade. <h2>Why this matters</h2> You might be asking the question: so what? Other than some polar bears not being able to hunt in the same way, why does it matter? Perhaps there are even benefits as the previous US secretary of state, Mike Pompeo, <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/06/politics/pompeo-sea-ice-arctic-council/index.html">once declared</a> – it means ships from Asia can potentially save around 3,000 miles of journey to European ports in summer at least. But Arctic sea ice is an important component of the climate system. As it dramatically reduces the amount of sunlight absorbed by the ocean, removing this ice is predicted to further accelerate warming, through a process known as a positive feedback. This, in turn, will make the Greenland ice sheet <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2014GL059770">melt faster</a>, which is already a major contributor to <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021RG000757">sea level rise</a>. The loss of sea ice in summer would also mean changes in <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/ccp6/">atmospheric circulation and storm tracks</a>, and fundamental shifts in ocean biological activity. These are just some of the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021RG000757">highly undesirable consequences</a> and it is fair to say that the disadvantages will far outweigh the slender benefits. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jonathan-bamber-102567">Jonathan Bamber</a>, Professor of Physical Geography, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-bristol-1211">University of Bristol</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/arctic-ocean-could-be-ice-free-in-summer-by-2030s-say-scientists-this-would-have-global-damaging-and-dangerous-consequences-206974">original article</a>. Images: Getty

Travel Trouble

Deadly Colombian volcano could be about to erupt, warn scientists

<div class="copy"> On March 30, Colombia’s Geological Service raised its alert level on the volcano from yellow to orange. They warn that the volcano could erupt with a strength unseen in the last 10 years within “weeks or days”. President of Colombia Gustavo Petro on April 5 ordered the voluntary evacuation of about 2,500 families living near the volcano. Many locals have been unwilling to leave their belongings and livelihoods behind. Geologists monitoring the volcano have recorded thousands of tremors every day – an unprecedented number. Nevado del Ruiz, one of Colombia’s tallest peaks at 5,321 metres high, is located in a populated farming region. It is only 129 km west of the country’s capital city Bogotá. In 1985, the volcano erupted with tragic consequences. It triggered mudslides that nearly completely buried the town of Armero. More than 23,000 of the town’s 30,000 residents were killed. Despite humanity’s long history of living under the shadow of volcanoes and trying to understand them, geologists, seismologists and vulcanologists remain largely baffled by the lava-spewing behemoths. The last time the threat level of Nevado del Ruiz was raised, for example, was in 2012. For over a month in April of that year, residents were under orange alert. This was increased to red alert for two days in June. But no major eruption occurred. Recently, new methods for assessing the risk of volcanic eruption have been trialled from studying the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/volcano-breath-test-predict-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical composition of the atmosphere</a> above active volcanoes to <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/ai-volcano-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">utilising artificial intelligence</a> to try and make sense of the pattern of eruptions. University of Miami professor in marine geosciences Falk Amelung believes the threat should not be taken lightly. “This is a high-risk and well-monitored volcano, and right now, all the ingredients for a new eruption are there,” Amelung says in a university <a href="https://www.newswise.com/articles/is-colombia-s-deadly-nevado-del-ruiz-on-the-verge-of-a-major-eruption#!" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a> on Newswise. “A significant seismic swarm occurred on March 30, and this [low-magnitude] earthquake sequence strongly suggests that magma is on the move.” Like Mount St Helens in Washington state, US which famously erupted in 1980, killing 57 people, Nevado del Ruiz is a glacier-covered volcano. Amelung says that this places local residents under extra peril. “Even a relatively small eruption would melt the glacier,” Amelung explains. “Volcanic ash combined with the meltwater would form mudflows, known as lahars, that can travel fast and for several miles.” <div class="in-content-area content-third content-right"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/massive-tongan-eruption-claimed-few-lives-due-to-quirk/"> </a></div> Amelung admits it is impossible to say with certainty what will happen. “This increased period of activity could well die down and nothing happens,” he says. Ironically, global warming over the last 38 years since the eruption which saw the inundation of Armero, means the glaciers that cover the volcano’s summit are smaller, lessening lahar hazards. “But it is also bad news in terms of eruption hazards because there is less pressure from the overburden to keep the magma at depth,” Amelung adds.  <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=246260&title=Deadly+Colombian+volcano+could+be+about+to+erupt%2C+warn+scientists" width="1" height="1" data-spai-target="src" data-spai-orig="" data-spai-exclude="nocdn" /></div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/colombian-volcano-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Evrim Yazgin. Images: Getty </div>

Travel Trouble

Schumacher’s family suing German magazine over fake interview

Michael Schumacher’s family is preparing to take legal action against German tabloid magazine Die Aktuelle, for publishing an AI-generated “interview” with the star. The publication has been slammed for using Michael’s face on their April 15 front cover, promoting the piece as “the first interview” since the star’s skiing accident in December 2013. “No meagre, nebulous half-sentences from friends. But answers from him! By Michael Schumacher, 54!” read the text in the magazine. “It sounded deceptively real,” they added in the strapline, which was the only indicator that the piece was fake. The “interview” included quotes that insensitively described Schumacher’s recovery, following the accident where he suffered a serious brain injury. “I was so badly injured that I lay for months in a kind of artificial coma, because otherwise my body couldn’t have dealt with it all,” the quote read. “I’ve had a tough time but the hospital team has managed to bring me back to my family,” they added. It was only at the end of the article that the publication revealed that they used Character.ai, an AI chatbot, to create the interview. A spokesperson for Schumachers confirmed their intention to take legal action against Die Aktuelle to Reuters and ESPN. This isn’t the first time Schumacher’s family have taken action against Die Aktuelle. In 2015, Michael’s wife, Corinna Schumacher filed a lawsuit against the magazine after they used Corinna’s picture with the headline: “Corinna Schumacher – a new love makes her happy.” The story was actually about their daughter, Gina, but the lawsuit was dismissed. Image: Getty Images

Legal

From floods to fire? A climate scientist on the chances El Niño will hit Australia this year

After three soggy years of La Niña in a row, Australia has endured record-breaking floods, the latest of which has inundated <a href="https://theconversation.com/disastrous-floods-in-wa-why-were-we-not-prepared-197407">the Kimberley</a> in Western Australia and across <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-17/qld-weather-system-brings-rainfall-floodwaters-chance-of-cyclone/101859094">north and central Queensland</a>. While the rains may have initially been a relief after the heat, drought and fires that came before, they have long outstayed their welcome. Thankfully, the <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/index.shtml#tabs=Overview">latest update</a> from the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) points to a continuing weakening of La Niña – but it also points to the possibility of El Niño emerging by the autumn. You can think of El Niño as being like the opposite of La Niña. While La Niña is known for bringing cooler, rainy weather, El Niño brings hot, dry conditions. This means it’s often associated with drought, heatwaves and bushfires. The world’s hottest year on record in 2016 was an El Niño year. Let’s take a closer look at BOM’s forecast and what Australians can expect in the coming months. <h2>The difference between El Niño, La Niña and climate change</h2> La Niña and El Niño events are “climate drivers”, which means they are part of the natural oscillations of the Earth’s climate. Human-caused climate change, on the other hand, acts over a longer term, steadily bringing up the planet’s average temperature and exacerbating some of the impacts of La Niña and El Niño events. La Niña is characterised by cooler waters than normal in the tropical eastern Pacific near Peru and Ecuador and warmer waters in the west Pacific including around northern Australia. When we have La Niña we have an increased chance of wet conditions over northern and eastern Australia, especially in spring. The past three years with consecutive La Niña events have followed this pattern. In contrast, El Niño is associated with warmer waters over the central and eastern Pacific Ocean and cooler waters in the west. El Niño conditions bring an increased chance of warmer and drier conditions in Australia. For now we have a dissipating La Niña, and there is strong confidence it will continue to weaken over the coming weeks. We expect it to be properly finished by the end of summer. <h2>The likelihood of El Niño forming</h2> As we look further ahead, our confidence in what will happen next reduces. BOM’s outlook suggests El Niño conditions could arrive by late autumn, but other <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/index.shtml#tabs=Pacific-Ocean">forecast models</a> point to a lower chance of El Niño emerging at all. Forecasts of El Niño are challenging several months in advance, but particularly at this time of year when they have to overcome the “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-03/autumn-climate-reset-clouding-forecasters-crystal-balls/100043614">autumn predictability barrier</a>”. In autumn, there is less variation in the Pacific Ocean’s temperature and it’s harder to forecast if an El Niño or La Niña will emerge by winter. We are by no means guaranteed a switch to El Niño, but there is a higher probability of an El Niño forming in the next few months than we’ve seen for several years. Australia is also affected by other natural climate drivers, such as the <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/history/ln-2010-12/IOD-what.shtml">Indian Ocean Dipole</a>, which has a strong effect on winter weather. This climate driver is brought about by interactions between ocean currents and the atmosphere, and influences rainfall patterns around the Indian Ocean, including Australia. It’s currently forecast to move into a “positive phase” by early winter, which would favour a drier winter over most of Australia as well <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/index.shtml#tabs=Indian-Ocean">but this is also still uncertain</a>. <h2>From floods to drought?</h2> With indications of a shift to El Niño and positive Indian Ocean Dipole, should we expect to swing from floods to drought? <a href="https://theconversation.com/flash-droughts-can-dry-out-soil-in-weeks-new-research-shows-what-they-look-like-in-australia-161286">Drought occurs on different timescales</a>, but Australia’s most devastating droughts, which result in major agricultural losses and water restrictions, require several years of dry conditions. With our dams full, it’s unlikely we’ll see a major drought form for a while. If we have an extended period without La Niña or negative Indian Ocean Dipole conditions, then drought may <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-drought-busting-rain-depends-on-the-tropical-oceans-132188">start to appear again</a>. However, the drier weather would also raise the risks of other hazards such as heatwaves and bushfires. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-020-00065-8">horror 2019-2020 fire season</a> came off the back of a weak El Niño and a strongly positive Indian Ocean Dipole. Indeed, Australia’s <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/updates/articles/a032.shtml">hottest summer on record</a> was during the El Niño of 2018-2019. This time, our three consecutive La Niña events have resulted in more vegetation growth. This means next summer, there will be more fuel for fires to burn. <h2>New heights for global temperatures</h2> El Niño doesn’t just affect Australia. For example, during El Niño events we typically see a weaker Indian monsoon and drier conditions over southern Africa. East Africa, which has suffered greatly <a href="https://theconversation.com/famine-should-not-exist-in-2022-yet-somalia-faces-its-worst-yet-wealthy-countries-pay-your-dues-191952">from drought</a> in recent times, is usually wetter during El Niño. As El Niño events involve the warming of a large area of the Pacific Ocean they tend to raise the global average surface temperature by about one-tenth of a degree. While that might not sound like very much, it could push the global average surface temperature to record-breaking highs, particularly in the year after an El Niño forms. Given the planet is rapidly warming due to our continuing high greenhouse gas emissions, and the fact we haven’t had a big El Niño for a while, even a moderate El Niño could mean the world experiences a new record hot year. There is even the possibility the global average temperature <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2354672-strong-el-nino-could-make-2024-the-first-year-we-pass-1-5c-of-warming/">could surpass 1.5℃</a> above pre-industrial levels for the first time. While we’re aiming to keep global warming under 1.5℃ to meet the Paris Agreement, an individual year above this mark does not mean we have failed. Still, it’s not a good sign if we start to hit that mark. <h2>Is climate change altering El Niño?</h2> It’s not yet clear exactly how climate change may be altering El Niño. However, there are indications climate change may be moving El Niño events <a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-has-rapidly-become-stronger-and-stranger-according-to-coral-records-115560">towards the central Pacific</a> nearer the international dateline. Climate change could also possibly strengthen rainfall responses to El Niño and La Niña over the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12580">Pacific</a> and <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021GL097511">elsewhere</a>. This may worsen both our floods and droughts in Australia, but more research is needed. Unfortunately, in terms of global temperatures and Australian heatwaves, it’s clear the combination of human-caused climate change and a major El Niño event increases the likelihood of record-breaking events. An El Niño may not be a welcome a reprieve from the past few soggy years. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-floods-to-fire-a-climate-scientist-on-the-chances-el-nino-will-hit-australia-this-year-197408" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Travel Trouble

Climate scientist warns a deadly bushfire season is "likely"

An early climate model has suggested a hot and dry El Niño could form once La Niña - the event responsible for three years of flooding rains - comes to a slow close. Should this be on the horizon, a summer of drought, heatwaves and bushfires are all but certain according to a climate expert. The Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) released its latest climate driver update on Thursday, stating ocean temperatures "remain warmer than average in the western Pacific". Models indicate sea-surface temperatures may exceed El Niño thresholds in the equatorial Pacific by June. Dr Wenju Cai, a climate scientist with the CSIRO, said an El Niño is "likely" to form. "We have been through three years of La Niña, during each of which heat is stored in the equatorial Pacific," he told 9News.com.au. "With so much heat charged in the equatorial Pacific, an El Niño is readily triggered by relaxation of the trade winds over the region." "(The) majority of prediction models are predicting an El Niño by the summer.” After extreme wet weather conditions and soaking rains, Cai holds fears for the next bushfire season - warning it could recall the grim scenes of Black Summer of 2019 and early 2020. The World Health Organisation (WHO) says heatwaves are among the most dangerous of natural hazards. Cai said Australia should know for certain what the summer will hold by June. "Between March and May, predictability is low as this is a period in which there is high noise, the so-called autumn predictability barrier," he said. One thing is for certain though, La Niña is drawing to a close. Image: Getty

Travel Trouble

Volcano breath test helps scientists predict deadly eruptions

Humanity has a long history of living in the shadows of active volcanoes. Prized for their rich, fertile soils – ideal for cultivating crops – and their local topography, it isn’t hard to see why living in active volcanic regions remains a worthwhile gamble. Volcanic eruptions, however, are notoriously difficult to predict but improving our diagnostic abilities is crucial for developing early warning procedures and evading disaster. External indicators such as earthquakes and deformation of the Earth’s crust are traditional methods of identifying an imminent eruption, however, not all eruptions give these early warning signs. But now a research team from the University of Tokyo has gained better insight into the relationship between changes in the magma composition and eruption, by studying the ratio of specific chemical isotopes in gas and steam emitted from fumaroles — holes and cracks in the earth’s surface. “When you compare a volcano with a human body, the conventional geophysical methods represented by observations of earthquakes and crustal deformation are similar to listening to the chest and taking body size measurements”, said Professor Hirochika Sumino from the Research Centre for Advanced Science and Technology, who led the study. “In these cases, it is difficult to know what health problem causes some noise in your chest or a sudden increase in your weight, without a detailed medical check. On the other hand, analysing the chemical and isotope composition of elements in fumarolic gases is like a breath or blood test. This means we are looking at actual material directly derived from magma to know precisely what is going on with the magma.” Previous research on gas associated with an eruption from a volcano in the Canary Islands in 2011 showed an increase in the ratio of heavier helium isotopes which are typical of mantle material. “We knew that the helium isotope ratio occasionally changes from a low value, similar to the helium found in the Earth’s crust, to a high value, like that in the Earth’s mantle, when the activity of magma increases,” said Sumino. “But we didn’t know why we had more mantle-derived helium during magmatic unrest.” Sumino and team sought the answers in fumerole gas around Kusatsu-Shirane, an active volcano 150 km northwest of Tokyo. Taking samples of the gas back to the lab every few months between 2014 and 2021, the researchers were able to ascertain precise measurements of the isotopic components, discovering a relationship between the ratio of argon-40 to helium-3 ( a ‘high value’ isotope of helium) and magmatic unrest. “Using computer models, we revealed that the ratio reflects how much the magma underground is foaming, making bubbles of volcanic gases which separate from the liquid magma,” explained Sumino. The extent to which the magma is foaming “controls how much magmatic gas is provided to the hydrothermal system beneath a volcano and how buoyant the magma is. The former is related to a risk of phreatic eruption, in which an increase in water pressure in the hydrothermal system causes the eruption. The latter would increase the rate of magma ascent, resulting in a magmatic eruption.” The research collaboration is now developing a portable type of mass spectrometer which could be used in the field for real time analysis, reducing the need to constantly collect and transport samples back to the lab – a challenging a time-consuming process. “Our next step is to establish a noble gas analysis protocol with this new instrument, to make it a reality that all active volcanoes — at least those which have the potential to cause disaster to local residents — are monitored 24 hours a day, seven days a week,” said Sumino. This article originally appeared on cosmosmagazine.com and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/volcano-breath-test-predict-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Clare Kenyon</a>. Image: Getty

Travel Trouble

Obese yet malnourished toddler mummy sheds light on life in 17th century aristocratic Austria

In a creepy discovery published, a collaboration of German scientists have performed a ‘virtual autopsy’ on a mummified toddler’s body, found in a 17th century Austrian crypt. Buried in a wooden coffin that was slightly too small and deformed the skull, the young child’s body appeared to be both obese and malnourished. Researchers say the findings might provide a rare insight into historical Austrian aristocratic society. By using CT scanning, scientists were able to perform a ‘virtual autopsy’ on the mummy which was naturally mummified in the conditions of the crypt. Well-preserved soft tissue showed the child was a boy, overweight for his age, and radiocarbon dating suggests a date of death between 1550 and 1635 CE. By examining the formation and length of the body’s bones, plus evidence of tooth eruption, the researchers were able to estimate that the child was about one year old when he died. The bones also showed that despite being well-fed, the boy was malnourished, with his malformed ribs displaying signs of rachitic rosary. This condition presents in a pattern of prominent bony knobs at points where the rib joins cartilage and results from diseases associated with specific vitamin deficiencies such as rickets (vitamin D) and scurvy (vitamin C). Vitamin D is found in foods like salmon, tuna, mackerel and beef liver and egg yolks, but we typically only get around 10% of our required Vitamin D from our diets – the rest is made by our bodies when exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) from the sun. “The combination of obesity along with a severe vitamin-deficiency can only be explained by a generally ‘good’ nutritional status along with an almost complete lack of sunlight exposure,” said Dr Andreas Nerlich of the Academic Clinic Munich-Bogenhausen and lead researcher. The child appears to have died from pneumonia, judging by the evidence of inflammation in the lungs. Rickets is known to make children more vulnerable to pneumonia, suggesting that, sadly, not only was the child malnourished, but that this condition may have also led to his untimely demise. “We have to reconsider the living conditions of high aristocratic infants of previous populations,” said Nerlich. Relatively little is known about aristocratic childhood in the late Renaissance period, so these mummified remains give key insights into life in Europe of a period generally known for its fervent creativity and intellectual development. “This is only one case,” said Nerlich, “but as we know that the early infant death rates generally were very high at that time, our observations may have considerable impact in the over-all life reconstruction of infants even in higher social classes.” To understand more about this period, researchers scoured historical records of the crypt and the family to whom the crypt belonged. Curiously, the child was buried in a simple, unmarked, wooden coffin, although he was dressed in an expensive silk hooded coat. The unmarked coffin appeared to have been slightly too small for the body such that the skull became deformed and was the only infant buried amongst the identifiable adult metal coffins in the crypt. Historical records of renovations on the crypt confirmed the radiocarbon dating, indicating the child was likely buried sometime after 1600 CE. The crypt belonged to the Counts of Starhemberg and traditionally was kept exclusively for the burial of heirs to their titles, and their wives, making the body likely to be that of the first-born (and only) son, Reichard Wilhelm, of Count Starhemberg. “We have no data on the fate of other infants of the family,” Nerlich said, regarding the unique burial. “According to our data, the infant was most probably [the count’s] first-born son after erection of the family crypt, so special care may have been applied.” This article originally appeared on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/toddler-mummy-17thcentury-austria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Clare Kenyon. Image: Andreas et al. (2022)

Travel Trouble

Sounds great: Scientists are manipulating dreams to prevent nightmares

It’s estimated that at any given time, around 4% of adults suffer <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/one-side-of-your-brain-might-be-giving-you-nightmares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic nightmares</a> but researchers in Switzerland have a new approach which will be music to the ears of night-terror-sufferers. Basing their study on the relationship between the types of <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/nightmares-and-night-terrors-in-kids-when-do-they-stop-being-normal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions experienced in dreams</a> and our emotional well-being, researchers have investigated how to help people by manipulating emotions in their dreams. Traditional methods to help chronic nightmare patients involves ‘imagery rehearsal therapy’, during which they are coached to rehearse the dream scenario during the day and redirect it towards a more positive ending. A <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11818-021-00320-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2021 study</a> of 28 participants showed 3 in 5 patients benefitted from this approach, however, it doesn’t work for everyone. <div class="newsletter-box"> <div id="wpcf7-f6-p220659-o1" class="wpcf7" dir="ltr" lang="en-US" role="form"> <form class="wpcf7-form mailchimp-ext-0.5.62 spai-bg-prepared init" action="/health/sounds-great-preventing-nightmares/#wpcf7-f6-p220659-o1" method="post" novalidate="novalidate" data-status="init"> <input class="wpcf7-form-control wpcf7-text referer-page" name="referer-page" type="hidden" value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/" data-value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/" aria-invalid="false" /> </form> </div> </div> In a <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(22)01477-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study from Geneva University</a>, over a two-week period, researchers asked a group of 18 patients to create an association between the positively redirected version of their dream and a sound during an imagination exercise. The patients then wore wireless headbands during night which would play the specific sound during the REM (Rapid Eye Movement) stage of sleep – when <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/nightmare-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20353515" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nightmares typically occur</a>. When compared to 18 patients who undertook only the image rehearsal therapy, those who received the combined rehearsal and sound therapy had fewer nightmares. This trend continued even after three months post-intervention, with those receiving combination therapy also reporting experiencing more positive emotions such as ‘joy’ in their dreams. “We were positively surprised by how well the participants respected and tolerated the study procedures, for example performing imagery rehearsal therapy every day and wearing the sleep headband during the night,” says Lampros Perogamvros, senior author of the study and a psychiatrist at the Sleep Laboratory of the Geneva University Hospitals and the University of Geneva. “We observed a fast decrease of nightmares, together with dreams becoming emotionally more positive. For us, researchers and clinicians, these findings are very promising both for the study of emotional processing during sleep and for the development of new therapies.”  <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=220659&title=Sounds+great%3A+Scientists+are+manipulating+dreams+to+prevent+nightmares" width="1" height="1" />  <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/sounds-great-preventing-nightmares/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on Cosmos Magazine and was written by Clare Kenyon. Image: Getty Images </div>

Mind

Manipulating light can induce psychedelic experiences – and scientists aren’t quite sure why

For millennia, people have used mind-altering techniques to achieve different states of consciousness, envision spiritual figures, connect with nature, or simply for the fun of it. Psychedelic substances, in particular, have a long and controversial <a href="https://theconversation.com/psychedelic-drugs-can-be-almost-as-life-altering-as-near-death-experiences-189325">history</a>. But for just as long, people have been having these experiences without drugs too, using <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/1/101">rhythmic techniques such as rocking, chanting or drumming</a>. Perhaps the most powerful technique of this kind is flickering light, called “ganzflicker”. Ganzflicker effects can be achieved by turning a light on and off, or by alternating colours in a rapid, rhythmic pattern (like a strobe). This can create an instant psychedelic experience. Ganzflicker elicits striking visual phenomena. People can see geometric shapes and illusory colours but sometimes also complex objects, such as animals and faces – all without any chemical stimulants. Sometimes ganzflicker can even lead to altered states of consciousness (such as losing a sense of time or space) and emotions (ranging from fear to euphoria). Although its effects are little known today, ganzflicker has influenced and inspired many people through the ages, including the two of us. We are an art historian and brain scientist working together on an interactive showcase of ganzflicker techniques used in science and art. Our collaboration has culminated in the museum exhibition <a href="https://reshannereeder.com/ganzflicker-exhibit">“Ganzflicker: art, science, and psychedelic experience”</a>, which is part of the 2022 <a href="https://www.beinghumanfestival.org/">Being Human festival</a>. Ganzflicker’s effects were first documented in 1819 by the physiologist <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/235945">Jan E. Purkinje</a>. Purkinje discovered that illusory patterns could appear if he faced the sun and waved his hand in front of his closed eyelids. Near the end of the 19th century, an English toymaker and amateur scientist, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/051200c0">Charles Benham</a>, produced the first commercially available flicker device: a top with a monochrome pattern that, when spun, produced illusory colours that swirled around the disc. Modified versions of Benham’s “artificial spectrum top” were used in experiments well into the 20th century. William Grey Walter, a pioneering neurophysiologist and cybernetician, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-70911-1_17">pushed flicker effects further</a> by using electric strobe lights, synchronised with the brain’s rhythms. Fascinated by the mind-altering potential of Walter’s machinery, the artist Brion Gysin, in collaboration with writer William S. Burroughs and mathematician Ian Sommerville, invented the <a href="http://mindcontrol-research.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/14_2_dream-machine-plans.pdf">Dreamachine</a> (1962). <h2>The swinging 60s of drug-free psychedelics</h2> A Dreamachine consists of an upright cylinder with patterns cut into it and a lightbulb suspended at its centre. When spun on a turntable at 78rpm, the flickering patterns (viewed through closed eyelids) can cause trance-like hallucinations. Gysin thought of the Dreamachine as a new kind of artwork – “the first art object to be seen with the eyes closed” – and a form of entertainment, which he believed could replace the television. Others saw the Dreamachine’s potential to be a source of spiritual inspiration. Burroughs thought it could be <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/brion-gysin-the-pioneering-artist-who-invented-the-dreamachine/">used to</a> “storm the citadels of enlightenment”. The poet Alan Ginsberg said: “It sets up optical fields as religious and mandalic as hallucinogenic drugs – it’s like being able to have jewelled biblical designs and landscapes without taking chemicals.” Flicker experiments in art did not stop with the Dreamachine. Others included Tony Conrad’s groundbreaking structuralist film <a href="https://fourthree.boilerroom.tv/film/flicker-tony-conrad">The Flicker</a> (1966), which was the first artwork to include the warning “may induce epileptic seizures or produce mild symptoms of shock treatment in certain persons”. The conceptual artist James Turrell’s <a href="https://jamesturrell.com/work/bindu-shards/">Bindu Shards</a> (2010) was an enclosed globe that bombards the observer with strobe light. And, more recently, Collective Act created its own <a href="https://dreamachine.world/">Dreamachine</a> (2022) , a public planetarium-style artwork inspired by Gysin’s which toured the UK. <h2>The science of ganzflicker</h2> Two hundred years after Jan Purkinje documented the physiological properties of ganzflicker, scientists still do not have a definitive explanation for how it works. A recent theory proposes that visual phenomena may be the result of interactions between external flicker and the brain’s natural rhythmic electrical pulses, with more intense images manifesting <a href="https://theconversation.com/pseudo-hallucinations-why-some-people-see-more-vivid-mental-images-than-others-test-yourself-here-163025">when the frequencies of flicker and the brain are closest</a>. It is also likely that a strong visual flicker influences brain states. Meaningful visions, altered conscious states and heightened emotions may be the result of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18591-6">imaginative suggestion</a>, which is amplified by the trance-inducing properties of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/1/101">rhythmic stimulation</a>. What is perhaps most powerful about ganzflicker is its universality. Engineers, mathematicians, artists, historians and scientists have all been united by this modest, drug-free means of eliciting dramatic changes in consciousness. The new wave of popularity on this topic will undoubtedly lead to illuminating discoveries in the coming years. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/manipulating-light-can-induce-psychedelic-experiences-and-scientists-arent-quite-sure-why-192885" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Art

It took scientists 100 years to track these eels to their breeding ground

The life of a European eel isn’t an easy one. They’re critically endangered, must travel up to 10,000 km to get to their spawning point and then when they get there they <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eel_life_history#European_eel" target="_blank" rel="noopener">probably die</a>. But they’re also incredibly difficult to keep track of. In the 1920s a Danish biologist named Johannes Schmidt, discovered the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargasso_Sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Sargasso Sea</a> – due east of North America – had eel larvae. He spent the next 20 years trying to confirm his finding. But in the century since, researchers have been unable to sample either eggs or spawning adults. Now, a team from Europe has published a paper in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-19248-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scientific Reports</a> that shows the first direct evidence of adult European eels migrating to the Sargasso Sea to breed. This provides vitally needed information on the life cycle of these slippery suckers. “The European Eel is critically endangered, so it is important that we solve the mystery surrounding their complete life-cycle to support efforts to protect the spawning area of this important species,” <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ancient-mystery-of-european-eel-migration-unravelled-to-help-combat-decline-of-critically-endangered-species" target="_blank" rel="noopener">says project lead Ros Wright from the UK Environment Agency.</a> “This is the first time we’ve been able to track eels to the Sargasso Sea … Their journey will reveal information about eel migration that has never been known before.” The team attached satellite tags to 26 female eels that were in rivers in the Azores archipelago – an autonomous region of Portugal in the North Atlantic Ocean – and then waited. When tracking had been done before in areas within Europe, like the Baltic and North Sea, the migratory routes were tracked up to 5000 kilometres, but the tracking had not gone for long enough, and the eels were heading in the right direction, but never made it all the way to the Sargasso Sea. <div class="newsletter-box"> <div id="wpcf7-f6-p219813-o1" class="wpcf7" dir="ltr" lang="en-US" role="form"> <form class="wpcf7-form mailchimp-ext-0.5.62 spai-bg-prepared init" action="/nature/animals/european-eels-life-cycle-tracking-schmidt-sargasso-sea/#wpcf7-f6-p219813-o1" method="post" novalidate="novalidate" data-status="init"> <input class="wpcf7-form-control wpcf7-text referer-page" name="referer-page" type="hidden" value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/" data-value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/" aria-invalid="false" /> </form> </div> </div> “The data from the tags were used to identify migratory routes that extended up to 5000 km from release, and which suggested routes taken by eels migrating from different countries converge when passing the Azores,” <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-19248-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the team wrote in their paper.</a> “However, although eels were tracked for six months or more, their migration speed was insufficient to reach the Sargasso Sea for the first presumed spawning period after migration commenced, prompting the hypothesis that the spawning migration period of eels may extend to more than 18 months.” So, the team went directly to Azores to try and get the last leg of the journey, tracking 26 of the female eels with ‘X tags’. These collect data every two minutes and when the tag releases from the eel and bobs to the surface it then connects to the ARGOS satellite. Of course, not every single one worked. Only 23 tags communicated with the system; two became detached from the eels within a week. But the remainder provided a wealth of data to the team. Average migration speed was between 3 and 12 kilometres a day, and they were tracked from 40 days all the way to 366 days. Five of the eels ended up in within the Sargasso Sea boundaries while one eel made it all the way to the presumed breeding area Schmidt discovered those many years before. This isn’t the first time that eels have been tracked in this way. A study published last year, also in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02325-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scientific Reports</a>, which Cosmos covered at the time, looked at the spawning migrations of the Australasian short-finned eel. They found that the eels travelled for five months, around 2,620 km from south-Eastern Australia, as far north as the Coral Sea in Northern Queensland. The researchers in the European eel case still have much to do. The eels didn’t move fast enough to be able to make it to the spawning period on time, which means we still don’t really understand the life cycle. “Rather than make a rapid migration to spawn at the earliest opportunity, European eels may instead make a long, slow spawning migration at depth that conserves their energy and reduces mortality risk,” the team wrote. There’s also questions of what mechanisms the eels use to be able to correctly navigate to the Sargasso Sea. As usual in science, one answer has led to plenty more questions.  <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=219813&title=It+took+scientists+100+years+to+track+these+eels+to+their+breeding+ground" width="1" height="1" />  <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/animals/european-eels-life-cycle-tracking-schmidt-sargasso-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on Cosmos Magazine and was written by Jacinta Bowler. Image: Getty Images </div>

Family & Pets

Realistic androids coming closer, as scientists teach a robot to share your laughter

Do you ever laugh at an inappropriate moment? A team of Japanese researchers has taught a robot when to laugh in social situations, which is a major step towards creating an android that will be “like a friend.” “We think that one of the important functions of conversational AI is empathy,” says Dr Koji Inoue, an assistant professor at Kyoto University’s Graduate School of Informatics, and lead author on a paper describing the research, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2022.933261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in Frontiers in Robotics and AI. “Conversation is, of course, multimodal, not just responding correctly. So we decided that one way a robot can empathize with users is to share their laughter, which you cannot do with a text-based chatbot.” The researchers trained an AI with data from 80 speed dating dialogues, from a matchmaking marathon with Kyoto University students. (Imagine meeting a future partner at exercise designed to teach a robot to laugh…) “Our biggest challenge in this work was identifying the actual cases of shared laughter, which isn’t easy, because as you know, most laughter is actually not shared at all,” says Inoue. “We had to carefully categorise exactly which laughs we could use for our analysis and not just assume that any laugh can be responded to.” They then added this system to a hyper-realistic android named <a href="https://robots.ieee.org/robots/erica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Erica</a>, and tested the robot on 132 volunteers. <div class="newsletter-box"> <div id="wpcf7-f6-p214084-o1" class="wpcf7" dir="ltr" lang="en-US" role="form"> <form class="wpcf7-form mailchimp-ext-0.5.62 spai-bg-prepared init" action="/technology/robot-laugh/#wpcf7-f6-p214084-o1" method="post" novalidate="novalidate" data-status="init"> <input class="wpcf7-form-control wpcf7-text referer-page" name="referer-page" type="hidden" value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/" data-value="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/" aria-invalid="false" /> </form> </div> </div> Participants listened to one of three different types of dialogue with Erica: one where she was using the shared laughter system, one where she didn’t laugh at all, and one where she always laughed whenever she heard someone else do it. They then gave the interaction scores for empathy, naturalness, similarity to humans, and understanding. The researchers found that the shared-laughter system scored higher than either baseline. While they’re pleased with this result, the researchers say that their system is still quite rudimentary: they need to categorise and examine lots of other types of laughter before Erica’s chuckling naturally. “There are many other laughing functions and types which need to be considered, and this is not an easy task. We haven’t even attempted to model unshared laughs even though they are the most common,” says Inoue. Plus, it doesn’t matter how realistic a robot’s laugh is if the rest of its conversation is unnatural. “Robots should actually have a distinct character, and we think that they can show this through their conversational behaviours, such as laughing, eye gaze, gestures and speaking style,” says Inoue. “We do not think this is an easy problem at all, and it may well take more than 10 to 20 years before we can finally have a casual chat with a robot like we would with a friend.”  <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=214084&title=Realistic+androids+coming+closer%2C+as+scientists+teach+a+robot+to+share+your+laughter" width="1" height="1" />  <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/robot-laugh/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/ellen-phiddian" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ellen Phiddian</a>. Ellen Phiddian is a science journalist at Cosmos. She has a BSc (Honours) in chemistry and science communication, and an MSc in science communication, both from the Australian National University. Image: Getty Images </div>

Technology

News

Shop

Catalogues

Contests

Entertainment

Travel

Health

Lifestyle

Finance

Property

Games

Information

Keep up to date

Search

Is there a best way to peel a boiled egg? A food scientist explains

A century after its discovery, scientists capture first confirmed footage of a colossal squid in the deep

Incredible breakthrough after scientists make dire wolves "de-extinct"

What are sleep retreats? A sleep scientist explains the latest wellness trend

Festive bulge: scientists offer advice on how to beat overeating

A man scouring Google Earth found a mysterious scar in the Australian outback – and now scientists know what caused it

Why IBD is so hard to treat – and how scientists are making progress

"Do you hear it?": Worldwide hum global mystery baffles scientists

Surprise! Scientists find falls likely when texting and walking

Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by 2030s, say scientists – this would have global, damaging and dangerous consequences

Deadly Colombian volcano could be about to erupt, warn scientists

Schumacher’s family suing German magazine over fake interview

From floods to fire? A climate scientist on the chances El Niño will hit Australia this year

Climate scientist warns a deadly bushfire season is "likely"

Volcano breath test helps scientists predict deadly eruptions

Obese yet malnourished toddler mummy sheds light on life in 17th century aristocratic Austria

Sounds great: Scientists are manipulating dreams to prevent nightmares

Manipulating light can induce psychedelic experiences – and scientists aren’t quite sure why

It took scientists 100 years to track these eels to their breeding ground

Realistic androids coming closer, as scientists teach a robot to share your laughter

Our Partners